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PDQ Cancer Information Summaries [Internet]. Bethesda (MD): National Cancer Institute (US); 2002-.

Childhood Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment (PDQ®)

Health Professional Version

Authors

.

Published online: March 30, 2016.

This PDQ cancer information summary for health professionals provides comprehensive, peer-reviewed, evidence-based information about the treatment of childhood non-Hodgkin lymphoma. It is intended as a resource to inform and assist clinicians who care for cancer patients. It does not provide formal guidelines or recommendations for making health care decisions.

This summary is reviewed regularly and updated as necessary by the PDQ Pediatric Treatment Editorial Board, which is editorially independent of the National Cancer Institute (NCI). The summary reflects an independent review of the literature and does not represent a policy statement of NCI or the National Institutes of Health (NIH).

General Information About Childhood Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma (NHL)

Fortunately, cancer in children and adolescents is rare, although the overall incidence of childhood cancer has been slowly increasing since 1975.[1] Children and adolescents with cancer should be referred to medical centers that have a multidisciplinary team of cancer specialists with experience treating the cancers that occur during childhood and adolescence. This multidisciplinary team approach incorporates the skills of the following health care professionals and others to ensure that children receive treatment, supportive care, and rehabilitation that will achieve optimal survival and quality of life:

  • Primary care physicians.
  • Pediatric surgical surgeons.
  • Radiation oncologists.
  • Pediatric medical oncologists/hematologists.
  • Rehabilitation specialists.
  • Pediatric nurse specialists.
  • Social workers.
  • Child life professionals.
  • Psychologists.

(Refer to the PDQ Supportive and Palliative Care summaries for specific information about supportive care for children and adolescents with cancer.)

Guidelines for pediatric cancer centers and their role in the treatment of children with cancer have been outlined by the American Academy of Pediatrics.[2] At these pediatric cancer centers, clinical trials are available for most of the types of cancer that occur in children and adolescents, and the opportunity to participate in these trials is offered to most patients/families. Clinical trials for children and adolescents with cancer are generally designed to compare therapy that is accepted as the best currently available therapy (standard therapy) with potentially better therapy. Most of the progress made in identifying curative therapies for childhood cancers has been achieved through clinical trials. Information about ongoing clinical trials is available from the NCI website.

Dramatic improvements in survival have been achieved for children and adolescents with cancer.[1] Between 1975 and 2010, childhood cancer mortality decreased by more than 50%.[1] For non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL), the 5-year survival rate has increased over the same time period from 45% to 87% in children younger than 15 years and from 48% to 82% for adolescents aged 15 to 19 years.[1] Childhood and adolescent cancer survivors require close follow-up because cancer therapy side effects may persist or develop months or years after treatment. (Refer to the PDQ summary on the Late Effects of Treatment for Childhood Cancer for specific information about the incidence, type, and monitoring of late effects in childhood and adolescent cancer survivors.)

On the basis of immunophenotype, molecular biology, and clinical response to treatment, the vast majority of NHL cases occurring in childhood and adolescence fall into three categories:

  1. Mature B-cell NHL (Burkitt and Burkitt-like lymphoma/leukemia, diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, and primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma).

Other rare types of pediatric NHL include the following:

Incidence

Lymphoma (Hodgkin lymphoma and NHL) is the third most common childhood malignancy, and NHL accounts for approximately 7% of cancers in children younger than 20 years in high-income countries.[3,4]

The following factors affect the incidence of NHL in children and adolescents:[3]

  • Geographic location: In the United States, about 800 new cases of NHL are diagnosed each year. The incidence is approximately ten cases per 1 million people per year.
    In sub-Saharan Africa, the high incidence of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-induced Burkitt lymphoma/leukemia is tenfold to twentyfold higher, resulting in a much higher incidence of NHL.[5]
  • Age: Although there is no sharp age peak, childhood NHL occurs most commonly in the second decade of life, and occurs infrequently in children younger than 3 years.[3] NHL in infants is very rare (1% in Berlin-Frankfurt-Münster [BFM] trials from 1986 to 2002).[6] The incidence of NHL is increasing overall because of a slight increase in the incidence for those aged 15 to 19 years; however, the incidence of NHL in children younger than 15 years has remained constant over the past several decades.[3]
  • Race: The incidence of NHL is higher in whites than in African Americans, and Burkitt lymphoma/leukemia is more frequent in non-Hispanic whites (3.2 cases/million person-years) than in Hispanic whites (2.0 cases/million person-years).[7]
  • Gender: Childhood NHL is more common in males than in females, with the exception of primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma, in which the incidence is almost the same in males and females.[3,8] A review of Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) data revealed that 2.5 cases per 1 million person-years of Burkitt lymphoma/leukemia were diagnosed in the United States between 1992 and 2008, with more cases in males than in females (3.9:1.1).[3] The incidence of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma increases with age in both males and females. The incidence of lymphoblastic lymphoma remains relatively constant across ages for both males and females.[3]
  • Histology: The incidence and age distribution of histologic type of NHL according to gender is described in Table 1.

Table 1. Incidence and Age Distribution of Specific Types of NHLa

Incidence of NHL per Million Person-Years
MalesFemales
Age (y)<55–910–1415–19<55–9 10–1415–19
Burkitt3.266.12.80.81.10.81.2
Lymphoblastic1.62.22.82.20.91.00.70.9
DLBCL0.51.22.56.10.60.71.44.9
Other (mostly ALCL)2.33.34.37.8b1.51.62.83.4b

ALCL = anaplastic large cell lymphoma; DLBCL = diffuse large B-cell lymphoma; NHL = non-Hodgkin lymphoma.

aAdapted from Percy et al.[3]

bIn older adolescents, indolent and aggressive histologies (more commonly seen in adult patients) are beginning to be found.

Epidemiology

Relatively little data have been published on the epidemiology of childhood NHL. However, known risk factors include the following:

  • EBV: EBV is associated with most cases of NHL seen in the immunodeficient population.[3] Almost all Burkitt lymphoma/leukemia is associated with EBV in endemic Africa; however, approximately 15% of cases in Europe or the United States will have EBV detectable in the tumor tissue.[9]
  • Immunodeficiency: Immunodeficiency, both congenital and acquired (human immunodeficiency virus infection [HIV] or posttransplant immunodeficiency), increases the risk of NHL.[3,4]
  • Previous neoplasm: NHL presenting as a subsequent neoplasm is rare in pediatrics. A retrospective review of the German Childhood Cancer Registry identified 2,968 children who were newly diagnosed with cancer, 11 of whom (0.3%) were later diagnosed with NHL as a subsequent neoplasm before the age of 19 years.[10] In this small cohort, outcome was similar to patients with de novo NHL when treated with standard therapy.[10]

Anatomy

Unlike adults with NHL who most often present with nodal disease, children typically have extranodal disease involving the mediastinum, abdomen, and/or head and neck, as well as marrow or CNS.[4] For example, in developed countries, Burkitt lymphoma/leukemia occurs in the abdomen (approximately 60% of cases), with 15% to 20% of cases arising in the head and neck.[11,12] This high incidence of extranodal disease substantiates use of the Murphy staging system for pediatric NHL, as opposed to the Ann Arbor staging system.

Diagnostic Evaluation

The following tests and procedures are used to diagnose childhood NHL:

  • History and physical exam.
  • Pathologic examination of tumor cells.
    -

    Immunophenotyping by immunohistochemistry and/or flow cytometry.

    -

    Cytogenetics and/or fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH).

  • Bone marrow biopsy and aspiration.
  • Lumbar puncture.
  • Total-body imaging (e.g., computed tomography scan, positron emission tomography, and magnetic resonance imaging).
  • Serum electrolytes, uric acid, blood urea nitrogen (BUN), and creatinine.
  • Liver function tests.

Prognosis and Prognostic Factors for Childhood NHL

In high-income countries and with current treatments, more than 80% of children and adolescents with NHL will survive at least 5 years, although outcome is variable depending on a number of factors, including clinical stage and histology.[13]

Prognostic factors for childhood NHL include the following:

Response to therapy

Response to therapy in pediatric lymphoma is one of the most important prognostic markers. Regardless of histology, pediatric NHL that is refractory to first-line therapy has a very poor prognosis.[14-16]

  • Burkitt lymphoma/leukemia: One of the most important predictive factors is response to the initial prophase treatment; poor responders (i.e., <20% resolution of disease) had an event-free survival (EFS) of 30%.[17,18] Failure to achieve a complete remission after the initial induction courses has also been shown to adversely affect survival in Burkitt lymphoma/leukemia.[17,18]
  • Lymphoblastic lymphoma: The presence of a residual mediastinal mass at day 33 or at the end of induction was not found to be associated with a decreased survival in the BFM 90-95 studies, but all patients with less than 70% reduction at end induction had therapy intensified.[19]

International pediatric NHL response criteria have been proposed and require prospective evaluation. However, the clinical utility of these new criteria are under investigation.[20]

As opposed to acute leukemia, the prognostic value of minimal residual disease (MRD) following initiation of the therapy in pediatric NHL remains uncertain and requires further investigation.

  • Burkitt lymphoma/leukemia: One study suggests inferior outcome for patients with Burkitt lymphoma/leukemia that had detectable MRD after induction chemotherapy,[21] but a positive MRD at end induction was not prognostic in B-cell NHL in 32 MDD-positive patients, possibly because of the low number of relapses.[22]
  • T-lymphoblastic lymphoma: In a small study, one of ten patients had measurable MRD at end induction and this was the only patient who relapsed.[23]
  • Anaplastic large cell lymphoma: A retrospective analysis of a collaborative European study showed that after induction, MRD-negative patients had a relapse risk of approximately 20% and an overall survival (OS) rate of approximately 90%. By contrast, MRD-positive patients had a relapse risk of 81% and an OS rate of 65% (P < .001). The presence of MRD is significantly associated with uncommon histologic subtypes containing small cell and/or lymphohistiocytic components.[24][Level of evidence: 2A]

Stage at diagnosis/minimal disseminated disease (MDD)

In general, patients with low-stage disease (i.e., single extra-abdominal/extrathoracic tumor or totally resected intra-abdominal tumor) have an excellent prognosis (a 5-year survival rate of approximately 90%), regardless of histology.[17,19,25-28] Apart from this, the outcome by clinical stage, if the correct therapy is given, does not differ significantly, except for stage IV patients with CNS disease.

A surrogate for tumor burden (i.e., elevated levels of lactate dehydrogenase [LDH]) has been shown to be prognostic in many studies.[17,26,29,30]

MDD is generally defined as submicroscopic bone marrow involvement that is present at diagnosis. MDD is generally detected by sensitive methods such as flow cytometry or reverse transcription–polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Patients with morphologically involved bone marrow with more than 5% lymphoma cells are considered to have stage IV disease.

  • Burkitt lymphoma/leukemia: The role of MDD remains to be defined. One study suggests MDD to be predictive of outcome,[31] while another study does not.[22]
  • T-lymphoblastic lymphoma: A Children's Oncology Group (COG) study demonstrated the 2-year EFS for patients who had an MDD level by flow cytometry of less than 1% was 91% compared with 68% if the MDD level was more than 1%, and 52% if the MDD was 5% and greater.[32]
  • Anaplastic large cell lymphoma: In a retrospective subset analysis of children with anaplastic large cell lymphoma, MDD detected by RT-PCR for the NPM-ALK gene, could be found in 57% of patients at diagnosis and correlated with clinical stage.[33] The presence of MDD was associated with a 46% cumulative incidence of relapse compared with a 15% cumulative incidence of relapse in patients with no marrow involvement.[33] Patients with MDD who achieved MRD negative status before their second course of therapy had an intermediate EFS (69%) compared with MDD-negative patients (82%) and compared with patients with both MDD and positive MRD status (19%).[33]
    The presence of MDD is significantly associated with uncommon histologic subtypes containing small cell and/or lymphohistiocytic components.[33]

Sites of disease at diagnosis

In pediatric NHL, some sites of disease appear to have prognostic value, including the following:

  • Bone marrow and CNS: In general, patients with leukemic involvement (>25% blasts in marrow) or CNS involvement at diagnosis require more intensive therapy.[18,19,34] Although these intensive therapies have improved outcome, patients who present with CNS disease continue to have the worst outcome.[18,19,34,35] Patients with mature B-cell lymphoma/leukemia with CNS disease at presentation have a 3-year EFS of around 70%, while those with marrow involvement alone have a 3-year EFS of 90%.[18,26,30] The combination of CNS involvement and marrow disease appears to impact outcome the most.[18]
  • Mediastinum: As opposed to adults, mediastinal involvement in children and adolescents with nonlymphoblastic NHL results in an inferior outcome.[13,17,26,30] In children and young adults with primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma, series have reported a 3-year EFS of 50% to 70%.[26,29,30,36] However, a recent study from the NCI that utilized the dose-adjusted (DA)-EPOCH protocol (etoposide, prednisone, vincristine, and doxorubicin) with rituximab achieved an EFS close to 90%.[37]
  • Viscera: In anaplastic large cell lymphoma, a retrospective study by the European Intergroup for Childhood NHL (EICNHL) found a high-risk group of patients defined by involvement of mediastinum, skin, or viscera.[38] In a subsequent study analysis from EICNHL utilizing biologic risk factors, the clinical risk features were not found to be significant.[39] In the CCG-5941 study for anaplastic large cell lymphoma patients, these clinical risk factors could not be confirmed and only bone marrow involvement predicted inferior progression-free survival (PFS).[40][Level of evidence: 2A]
  • Bone: Although previously thought to be a poor prognostic site, patients with NHL arising in bone have an excellent prognosis, regardless of histology.[41,42]
  • Testicle: Testicular involvement does not affect prognosis.[19,25,43]
  • Head and Neck: For mature B-cell NHL, OS is comparable to that observed for patients with primary tumors at other sites. Head and neck primary tumors are associated with higher rates of disseminated and CNS disease and lower rates of LDH levels that were more than twofold above the upper limit of normal. Childhood NHL of the head and neck site was not associated with inferior OS.[12]
  • Skin: The prognostic implication of skin involvement is limited to anaplastic large cell lymphoma and depends on whether the disease is localized to skin. ALK-negative, skin-limited anaplastic large cell lymphoma appears to have an excellent prognosis. However, studies from EICNHL and the COG have demonstrated that skin involvement in systemic anaplastic large cell lymphoma does not appear to have positive prognostic value.[39,40]

Tumor biology

  • Mature B-cell lymphoma: Compared with treatments for adults, aggressive Burkitt regimens in pediatrics have been used to treat both Burkitt lymphoma/leukemia and large B-cell histologies, resulting in no difference in outcome based on histology.[13,17,26,27,30] The exception is primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma, which has had an inferior outcome with these regimens.[13,17,26,29,30,36]
    For pediatric Burkitt lymphoma/leukemia patients, secondary cytogenetic abnormalities, other than c-myc rearrangement, are associated with an inferior outcome,[44,45] and cytogenetic abnormalities involving gain of 7q or deletion of 13q appeared to have an inferior outcome on the FAB 96 chemotherapy protocol.[45,46] For pediatric patients with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma and chromosomal rearrangement at MYC (8q24), outcome appears to be worse.[45]
    A subset of pediatric diffuse large B-cell lymphoma cases were found to have a translocation that juxtaposes the IRF4 oncogene next to one of the immunoglobulin loci and has been associated with favorable prognosis compared with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma cases lacking this finding.[47]
  • T-lymphoblastic lymphoma: For pediatric patients with T-cell lymphoblastic lymphoma, the BFM group reported that loss of heterozygosity at chromosome 6q was observed in 12% of patients (25 of 217) and was associated with unfavorable prognosis (probability of EFS [pEFS], 27% vs. 86%, P <.0001).[48,49] NOTCH1 mutations were seen in 60% of patients (70 of 116) and were associated with favorable prognosis (pEFS, 84% vs. 66%; P = .021). NOTCH1 mutations were rarely seen in patients with loss of heterozygosity in 6q16.[48]
  • Anaplastic large cell lymphoma: In adults, ALK-negative disease has an inferior outcome; however, in children, the difference in outcome between ALK-positive and ALK-negative disease has not been demonstrated.[50-52] In a series of 375 children and adolescents with systemic ALK-positive anaplastic large cell lymphoma, the presence of a small cell or lymphohistiocytic component was observed in 32% of patients and was significantly associated with a high risk of failure in the multivariate analysis, controlling for clinical characteristics.[53]
    In the COG-ANHL0131 (NCT00059839) study, despite a different chemotherapy backbone, the small cell variant of anaplastic large cell lymphoma, as well as other histologic variants, had a significantly increased risk for failure.[52]

Age

NHL in infants is rare (1% in BFM trials from 1986 to 2002).[6] In this retrospective review, the outcome for infants was inferior compared with the outcome for older patients with NHL.[6]

Adolescents have been reported to have inferior outcome compared with younger children.[11,13,54,55] This adverse effect of age appears to be most pronounced for adolescents with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, and to a lesser degree T-cell lymphoblastic lymphoma, compared with younger children with these diagnoses.[13,55] On the other hand, for patients with Burkitt and Burkitt-like lymphoma/leukemia on the FAB LMB 96 (COG-C5961) clinical trial, adolescent age (≥15 years) was not an independent risk factor for inferior outcome.[30]

Immune response to tumor

An immune response against the ALK protein (i.e., anti-ALK antibody titer) appeared to correlate with lower clinical stage and predicted relapse risk but not OS.[56] A study by the EICNHL, which combined the level of anti-ALK antibody with MDD, demonstrated that newly diagnosed anaplastic large cell lymphoma patients could be reliably stratified into three risk groups (low, intermediate, and all remaining patients), with a PFS of 28%, 68% and 93%, respectively (P < .0001).[39]

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  46. Nelson M, Perkins SL, Dave BJ, et al.: An increased frequency of 13q deletions detected by fluorescence in situ hybridization and its impact on survival in children and adolescents with Burkitt lymphoma: results from the Children's Oncology Group study CCG-5961. Br J Haematol 148 (4): 600-10, 2010. [PMC free article: PMC2921871] [PubMed: 19895612]
  47. Salaverria I, Philipp C, Oschlies I, et al.: Translocations activating IRF4 identify a subtype of germinal center-derived B-cell lymphoma affecting predominantly children and young adults. Blood 118 (1): 139-47, 2011. [PubMed: 21487109]
  48. Bonn BR, Rohde M, Zimmermann M, et al.: Incidence and prognostic relevance of genetic variations in T-cell lymphoblastic lymphoma in childhood and adolescence. Blood 121 (16): 3153-60, 2013. [PubMed: 23396305]
  49. Burkhardt B, Moericke A, Klapper W, et al.: Pediatric precursor T lymphoblastic leukemia and lymphoblastic lymphoma: Differences in the common regions with loss of heterozygosity at chromosome 6q and their prognostic impact. Leuk Lymphoma 49 (3): 451-61, 2008. [PubMed: 18297521]
  50. Stein H, Foss HD, Dürkop H, et al.: CD30(+) anaplastic large cell lymphoma: a review of its histopathologic, genetic, and clinical features. Blood 96 (12): 3681-95, 2000. [PubMed: 11090048]
  51. Brugières L, Le Deley MC, Rosolen A, et al.: Impact of the methotrexate administration dose on the need for intrathecal treatment in children and adolescents with anaplastic large-cell lymphoma: results of a randomized trial of the EICNHL Group. J Clin Oncol 27 (6): 897-903, 2009. [PubMed: 19139435]
  52. Alexander S, Kraveka JM, Weitzman S, et al.: Advanced stage anaplastic large cell lymphoma in children and adolescents: results of ANHL0131, a randomized phase III trial of APO versus a modified regimen with vinblastine: a report from the children's oncology group. Pediatr Blood Cancer 61 (12): 2236-42, 2014. [PMC free article: PMC4682366] [PubMed: 25156886]
  53. Lamant L, McCarthy K, d'Amore E, et al.: Prognostic impact of morphologic and phenotypic features of childhood ALK-positive anaplastic large-cell lymphoma: results of the ALCL99 study. J Clin Oncol 29 (35): 4669-76, 2011. [PubMed: 22084369]
  54. Cairo MS, Sposto R, Perkins SL, et al.: Burkitt's and Burkitt-like lymphoma in children and adolescents: a review of the Children's Cancer Group experience. Br J Haematol 120 (4): 660-70, 2003. [PubMed: 12588354]
  55. Burkhardt B, Oschlies I, Klapper W, et al.: Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma in adolescents: experiences in 378 adolescent NHL patients treated according to pediatric NHL-BFM protocols. Leukemia 25 (1): 153-60, 2011. [PubMed: 21030984]
  56. Ait-Tahar K, Damm-Welk C, Burkhardt B, et al.: Correlation of the autoantibody response to the ALK oncoantigen in pediatric anaplastic lymphoma kinase-positive anaplastic large cell lymphoma with tumor dissemination and relapse risk. Blood 115 (16): 3314-9, 2010. [PubMed: 20185586]

Histopathologic and Molecular Classification of Childhood NHL

In children, non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) is distinct from the more common forms of lymphoma observed in adults. While lymphomas in adults are more commonly low or intermediate grade, almost all NHL that occurs in children is high grade.[1-3] The World Health Organization (WHO) classifies NHL according to the following features:[1]

  • Phenotype (i.e., B-lineage, T-lineage, or natural killer [NK] cell lineage).
  • Cell differentiation (i.e., precursor vs. mature).

Based on the WHO classification, the vast majority of NHL cases in childhood and adolescence fall into the following three categories:

  1. Mature B-cell NHL: Burkitt and Burkitt-like lymphoma/leukemia, diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, and primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma.
  2. Lymphoblastic lymphoma: Primarily precursor T-cell lymphoma and, less frequently, precursor B-cell lymphoma.
  3. Anaplastic large cell lymphoma: Mature peripheral T-cell/null-cell lymphomas. The null-cell variant is considered to be the same disease in which the cells have lost most of the T-cell antigens.

Refer to the following sections of this summary for more information about the tumor biology associated with each type of NHL:

WHO Classification for NHL

The WHO classification is the most widely used NHL classification and is shown in Table 2, with immunophenotype and common clinical and molecular findings in pediatric NHL.[1,2]

Table 2. Major Histopathological Categories of Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma in Children and Adolescentsa

WHO ClassificationImmunophenotype Clinical Presentation Chromosome Abnormalities Genes Affected
Burkitt and Burkitt-like lymphoma/leukemiaMature B cellIntra-abdominal (sporadic), head and neck (non-jaw, sporadic), jaw (endemic), bone marrow, CNS t(8;14)(q24;q32), t(2;8)(p11;q24), t(8;22)(q24;q11)C-MYC, IGH, IGK, IGL
Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma Mature B cell Nodal, abdominal, bone, primary CNS (when associated with immunodeficiency), mediastinalNo consistent cytogenetic abnormality identified
Primary mediastinal B-cell lymphomaMature B cell, often CD30+Mediastinal, but may also have other nodal or extranodal disease (i.e., abdominal, often kidney)9p and 2p gainsJAK2, C-rel, SOCS1
Lymphoblastic lymphoma, precursor T-cell leukemia, or precursor B-cell lymphoma Pre-T cell Mediastinal, bone marrow MTS1/p16ink4a; deletion TAL1 t(1;14)(p34;q11), t(11;14)(p13;q11) TAL1, TCRAO, RHOMB1, HOX11, NOTCH1
Pre-B cell Skin, bone, head and neck
Anaplastic large cell lymphoma, systemic CD30+ (Ki-1+) Variable, but systemic symptoms often prominent t(2;5)(p23;q35); less common variant translocations involving ALK ALK, NPM
T cell/null cell
Anaplastic large cell lymphoma, cutaneous CD30+ (Ki-usually) Skin only; single or multiple lesionsLacks t(2;5)
T cell

+ = positive; CNS = central nervous system; WHO = World Health Organization.

aAdapted from Percy et al.[2]

Other types of lymphoma, such as the nonanaplastic large cell peripheral T-cell lymphomas (including T/NK lymphomas), cutaneous lymphomas, and indolent B-cell lymphomas (e.g., follicular lymphoma and marginal zone lymphoma), are more commonly seen in adults and occur rarely in children. The most recent WHO classification has designated pediatric follicular lymphoma and pediatric nodal marginal zone lymphoma as distinct entities from the counterparts observed in adults.[1]

Refer to the following PDQ summaries for more information about the treatment of NHL in adult patients:

References

  1. Swerdlow SH, Campo E, Harris NL, et al., eds.: WHO Classification of Tumours of Haematopoietic and Lymphoid Tissues. 4th ed. Lyon, France: International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2008.
  2. Percy CL, Smith MA, Linet M, et al.: Lymphomas and reticuloendothelial neoplasms. In: Ries LA, Smith MA, Gurney JG, et al., eds.: Cancer incidence and survival among children and adolescents: United States SEER Program 1975-1995. Bethesda, Md: National Cancer Institute, SEER Program, 1999. NIH Pub.No. 99-4649, pp 35-50. Also available online. Last accessed March 31, 2016.
  3. Sandlund JT, Downing JR, Crist WM: Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma in childhood. N Engl J Med 334 (19): 1238-48, 1996. [PubMed: 8606720]

Stage Information for Childhood NHL

The Ann Arbor staging system is used for all lymphomas in adults and for Hodgkin lymphoma in pediatrics. However, the Ann Arbor staging system has less prognostic value in pediatric non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL), primarily because of the high incidence of extranodal disease. Therefore, the most widely used staging schema for childhood NHL is that of the St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital (Murphy Staging).[1] A new staging system defines bone marrow and central nervous system (CNS) involvement using modern techniques to document the presence of malignant cells. However, the basic definitions of bone marrow and CNS disease are essentially the same. The clinical utility of this new staging system is under investigation.[2]

Role of Radiographic Imaging in Childhood NHL

Radiographic imaging is essential in the staging of patients with NHL. Ultrasound may be the preferred method for assessment of an abdominal mass, but computed tomography (CT) scan and, more recently, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) have been used for staging. Radionuclide bone scans may be considered for patients in whom bone involvement is suspected.

The role of functional imaging in pediatric NHL is controversial. Gallium scans have been replaced by fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography (PET) scanning, which is now routinely performed at many centers.[3] A review of the revised International Workshop Criteria comparing CT imaging alone or CT together with PET imaging demonstrated that the combination of CT and PET imaging was more accurate than CT imaging alone.[4,5]

While the International Harmonization Project for PET (now called the International Working Group) response criteria have been attempted in adults, the prognostic value of PET scanning for staging pediatric NHL remains under investigation.[3,6,7] Data support that PET identifies more abnormalities than CT scanning,[8] but it is unclear whether this should be used to upstage pediatric patients and change therapy. The International Working Group has updated their response criteria for malignant lymphoma to include PET, immunohistochemistry, and flow cytometry data.[5,9]

St. Jude Children's Research Hospital (Murphy) Staging

Stage I childhood NHL

In stage I childhood NHL, a single tumor or nodal area is involved, excluding the abdomen and mediastinum.

Stage II childhood NHL

In stage II childhood NHL, disease extent is limited to a single tumor with regional node involvement, two or more tumors or nodal areas involved on one side of the diaphragm, or a primary gastrointestinal tract tumor (completely resected) with or without regional node involvement.

Stage III childhood NHL

In stage III childhood NHL, tumors or involved lymph node areas occur on both sides of the diaphragm. Stage III NHL also includes any primary intrathoracic (mediastinal, pleural, or thymic) disease, extensive primary intra-abdominal disease, or any paraspinal or epidural tumors.

Stage IV childhood NHL

In stage IV childhood NHL, tumors involve bone marrow and/or CNS, regardless of other sites of involvement.

Bone marrow involvement has been defined as 5% malignant cells in an otherwise normal bone marrow, with normal peripheral blood counts and smears. Patients with lymphoblastic lymphoma who have more than 25% malignant cells in the bone marrow are usually considered to have leukemia and may be appropriately treated on leukemia clinical trials.

CNS disease in lymphoblastic lymphoma is defined by criteria similar to that used for acute lymphocytic leukemia (i.e., white blood cell count of at least 5/μL and malignant cells in the cerebrospinal fluid [CSF]). For other types of NHL, the definition of CNS disease is any malignant cell present in the CSF regardless of cell count. The Berlin-Frankfurt-Münster group analyzed the prevalence of CNS involvement in NHL in over 2,500 patients. Overall, CNS involvement was diagnosed in 6% of patients. CNS involvement (percentage of patients) according to NHL subtype was as follows:[10]

  • Burkitt lymphoma/leukemia: 8.8%
  • Precursor B-cell lymphoblastic lymphoma: 5.4%
  • T-cell lymphoblastic lymphoma: 3.7%
  • Anaplastic large cell lymphoma: 3.3%
  • Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma: 2.6%
  • Primary mediastinal large B-cell lymphoma: 0%

References

  1. Murphy SB, Fairclough DL, Hutchison RE, et al.: Non-Hodgkin's lymphomas of childhood: an analysis of the histology, staging, and response to treatment of 338 cases at a single institution. J Clin Oncol 7 (2): 186-93, 1989. [PubMed: 2915234]
  2. Rosolen A, Perkins SL, Pinkerton CR, et al.: Revised International Pediatric Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Staging System. J Clin Oncol 33 (18): 2112-8, 2015. [PMC free article: PMC4461808] [PubMed: 25940716]
  3. Juweid ME, Stroobants S, Hoekstra OS, et al.: Use of positron emission tomography for response assessment of lymphoma: consensus of the Imaging Subcommittee of International Harmonization Project in Lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 25 (5): 571-8, 2007. [PubMed: 17242397]
  4. Brepoels L, Stroobants S, De Wever W, et al.: Hodgkin lymphoma: Response assessment by revised International Workshop Criteria. Leuk Lymphoma 48 (8): 1539-47, 2007. [PubMed: 17701585]
  5. Cheson BD, Pfistner B, Juweid ME, et al.: Revised response criteria for malignant lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 25 (5): 579-86, 2007. [PubMed: 17242396]
  6. Cheson BD: The International Harmonization Project for response criteria in lymphoma clinical trials. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am 21 (5): 841-54, 2007. [PubMed: 17908623]
  7. Bakhshi S, Radhakrishnan V, Sharma P, et al.: Pediatric nonlymphoblastic non-Hodgkin lymphoma: baseline, interim, and posttreatment PET/CT versus contrast-enhanced CT for evaluation--a prospective study. Radiology 262 (3): 956-68, 2012. [PubMed: 22357895]
  8. Cheng G, Servaes S, Zhuang H: Value of (18)F-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose positron emission tomography/computed tomography scan versus diagnostic contrast computed tomography in initial staging of pediatric patients with lymphoma. Leuk Lymphoma 54 (4): 737-42, 2013. [PubMed: 22957898]
  9. Cheson BD, Fisher RI, Barrington SF, et al.: Recommendations for initial evaluation, staging, and response assessment of Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphoma: the Lugano classification. J Clin Oncol 32 (27): 3059-68, 2014. [PMC free article: PMC4979083] [PubMed: 25113753]
  10. Salzburg J, Burkhardt B, Zimmermann M, et al.: Prevalence, clinical pattern, and outcome of CNS involvement in childhood and adolescent non-Hodgkin's lymphoma differ by non-Hodgkin's lymphoma subtype: a Berlin-Frankfurt-Munster Group Report. J Clin Oncol 25 (25): 3915-22, 2007. [PubMed: 17761975]

Treatment Option Overview for Childhood NHL

Many of the improvements in childhood cancer survival have been made using combinations of known and/or new agents that have attempted to improve the best available, accepted therapy. Clinical trials in pediatrics are designed to compare potentially better therapy with therapy that is currently accepted as standard. This comparison may be done in a randomized study of two treatment arms or by evaluating a single new treatment and comparing the results with those previously obtained with standard therapy.

All children with non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) should be considered for entry into a clinical trial. Treatment planning by a multidisciplinary team of cancer specialists with experience treating tumors of childhood is strongly recommended to determine, coordinate, and implement treatment to achieve optimal survival. Children with NHL should be referred for treatment by a multidisciplinary team of pediatric oncologists at an institution with experience in treating pediatric cancers. Information about ongoing clinical trials is available from the NCI website.

NHL in children is generally considered to be widely disseminated at diagnosis, even when the tumor is apparently localized; as a result, combination chemotherapy is recommended for most patients.[1] Exceptions to this treatment strategy include the following:

In contrast to the treatment of adults with NHL, the use of radiation therapy is limited in children with NHL. Study results include the following:

  • Early studies demonstrated that the routine use of radiation had no benefit for low-stage (I or II) NHL.[2]
  • It has been demonstrated that prophylactic central nervous system (CNS) radiation can be omitted in pediatric NHL.[3-6]
  • For patients with anaplastic large cell lymphoma and B-cell NHL who present with CNS disease, radiation can also be eliminated.[5,6]

Radiation therapy may have a role in treating patients who have not had a complete response to chemotherapy. Data to support limiting the use of radiation therapy in pediatric NHL come from the Childhood Cancer Survivor Study.[7] This analysis demonstrated that radiation was a significant risk factor for subsequent neoplasms and death in long-term survivors.

Treatment of NHL in childhood and adolescence has historically been based on histologic subtype of the disease. A study by the Children’s Cancer Group demonstrated that the outcome for lymphoblastic lymphoma was superior with longer acute lymphoblastic leukemia–like therapy, while nonlymphoblastic NHL (Burkitt lymphoma/leukemia) had superior outcome with short, intensive, pulsed therapy, whereas the large cell lymphoma outcome was similar with either approach.[8]

Outcome for recurrent NHL in children and adolescents remains very poor, with the exception of anaplastic large cell lymphoma.[9-13] All patients with primary refractory or relapsed NHL should be considered for clinical trials.

Table 3. Treatment Options for Childhood Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma (NHL)

Treatment GroupTreatment Options
Mature B-cell NHL:
Burkitt and Burkitt-like lymphoma/leukemiaNewly diagnosedSurgery (for stage I and II only)
Chemotherapy
RecurrentChemotherapy with or without rituximab
Allogeneic or autologous SCT
Diffuse large B-cell lymphomaNewly diagnosedSurgery (for stage I and II only)
Chemotherapy
RecurrentChemotherapy with or without rituximab
Allogeneic or autologous SCT
Primary mediastinal B-cell lymphomaChemotherapy and rituximab
Lymphoblastic lymphomaNewly diagnosedChemotherapy with or without cranial-spinal radiation therapy
RecurrentChemotherapy
Allogeneic SCT
Anaplastic large cell lymphomaNewly diagnosedSurgery followed by chemotherapy (for stage I)
Chemotherapy
RecurrentChemotherapy
Allogeneic or autologous SCT
Lymphoproliferative disease associated with immunodeficiency in children:
Lymphoproliferative disease associated with primary immunodeficiencyChemotherapy
Allogeneic SCT
HIV-associated NHLChemotherapy
PTLDSurgery and reduction of immunosuppressive therapy, if possible
Rituximab alone
Standard or slightly modified chemotherapy with or without rituximab (for B-cell PTLD)
Low-dose chemotherapy with or without rituximab (for EBV-positive B-cell PTLD)
Rare NHL occurring in children:
Pediatric follicular lymphomaSurgery only
Chemotherapy
MALT lymphomaSurgery only
Radiation therapy
Chemotherapy
Primary CNS lymphomaChemotherapy
Peripheral T-cell lymphomaChemotherapy
Radiation therapy
Allogeneic or autologous SCT
Cutaneous T-cell lymphomaNo standard treatments have been established

CNS = central nervous system; EBV = Epstein-Barr virus; HIV = human immunodeficiency virus; MALT = mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue; PTLD = posttransplant lymphoproliferative disease; SCT = stem cell transplantation.

Medical Emergencies

The most common potentially life-threatening clinical situations, most often seen in lymphoblastic lymphoma and Burkitt or Burkitt-like lymphoma/leukemia, are the following:

Mediastinal masses

Patients with large mediastinal masses are at risk for tracheal compression, superior vena caval compression, large pleural and pericardial effusions, and right and left ventricular outflow compression. Thus, cardiac or respiratory arrest is a significant risk, particularly if the patient is placed in a supine position.[14]

Because of the risks of general anesthesia or heavy sedation, a careful physiologic and radiographic evaluation of the patient should be completed, and the least invasive procedure should be used to establish the diagnosis of lymphoma.[15,16] The following procedures may be used:

  • Bone marrow aspirate and biopsy.
  • Thoracentesis. If a pleural or pericardial effusion is present, a cytologic diagnosis is frequently possible using thoracentesis, with confirmation of the diagnosis and cell lineage by flow cytometry.
  • Lymph node biopsy. In children who present with peripheral adenopathy, a lymph node biopsy under local anesthesia and in an upright position may be possible.[17]

In situations when the above procedures do not yield a diagnosis, use of a computed tomography (CT)-guided core-needle biopsy should be considered. This procedure can frequently be performed using light sedation and local anesthesia before proceeding to more invasive procedures. Care should be taken to keep patients out of a supine position. Most procedures, including CT scans and echocardiograms, can be done with the patient on his or her side or prone. Mediastinoscopy, anterior mediastinotomy, or thoracoscopy are the procedures of choice when other diagnostic modalities fail to establish the diagnosis. A formal thoracotomy is rarely, if ever, indicated for the diagnosis or treatment of childhood lymphoma.

Occasionally, it will not be possible to perform a diagnostic operative procedure because of the risk of general anesthesia or heavy sedation. In these situations, preoperative treatment with steroids or, less commonly, localized radiation therapy should be considered. Because preoperative treatment may affect the ability to obtain an accurate tissue diagnosis, a diagnostic biopsy should be obtained as soon as the risk of general anesthesia or heavy sedation is reduced.

Tumor lysis syndrome

Tumor lysis syndrome results from rapid breakdown of malignant cells, causing a number of metabolic abnormalities, most notably hyperuricemia, hyperkalemia, and hyperphosphatemia. Tumor lysis syndrome may present before the start of therapy.

Hyperhydration and allopurinol or rasburicase (urate oxidase) are essential components of therapy in all patients, except those with the most limited disease.[18-23] In patients with G6PD deficiency, rasburicase may cause hemolysis or methemoglobinuria. An initial prephase consisting of low-dose cyclophosphamide and vincristine does not obviate the need for allopurinol or rasburicase and hydration.

Hyperuricemia and tumor lysis syndrome, particularly when associated with ureteral obstruction, frequently result in life-threatening complications.

Tumor Surveillance

Although the use of positron emission tomography (PET) to assess rapidity of response to therapy appears to have prognostic value in Hodgkin lymphoma and some types of NHL observed in adult patients, it remains under investigation in pediatric NHL. To date, there are insufficient data in pediatric NHL to support that early response to therapy assessed by PET has prognostic value.

Diagnosing relapsed disease based solely on imaging requires caution because false-positive results are common.[24-27] There are also data demonstrating that PET scanning can produce false-negative results.[28] A study of young adults with primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma demonstrated that among 12 patients who had residual mediastinal masses at the end of therapy, 9 of the 12 had positive PET scans. Seven of these nine patients had the masses resected, but no viable tumor was found.[29] Before undertaking changes in therapy based on residual masses noted by imaging, a biopsy to prove residual disease is warranted.

References

  1. Sandlund JT, Downing JR, Crist WM: Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma in childhood. N Engl J Med 334 (19): 1238-48, 1996. [PubMed: 8606720]
  2. Link MP, Shuster JJ, Donaldson SS, et al.: Treatment of children and young adults with early-stage non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. N Engl J Med 337 (18): 1259-66, 1997. [PubMed: 9345074]
  3. Burkhardt B, Woessmann W, Zimmermann M, et al.: Impact of cranial radiotherapy on central nervous system prophylaxis in children and adolescents with central nervous system-negative stage III or IV lymphoblastic lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 24 (3): 491-9, 2006. [PubMed: 16421426]
  4. Sandlund JT, Pui CH, Zhou Y, et al.: Effective treatment of advanced-stage childhood lymphoblastic lymphoma without prophylactic cranial irradiation: results of St Jude NHL13 study. Leukemia 23 (6): 1127-30, 2009. [PMC free article: PMC2843413] [PubMed: 19194463]
  5. Seidemann K, Tiemann M, Schrappe M, et al.: Short-pulse B-non-Hodgkin lymphoma-type chemotherapy is efficacious treatment for pediatric anaplastic large cell lymphoma: a report of the Berlin-Frankfurt-Münster Group Trial NHL-BFM 90. Blood 97 (12): 3699-706, 2001. [PubMed: 11389005]
  6. Cairo MS, Gerrard M, Sposto R, et al.: Results of a randomized international study of high-risk central nervous system B non-Hodgkin lymphoma and B acute lymphoblastic leukemia in children and adolescents. Blood 109 (7): 2736-43, 2007. [PMC free article: PMC1852225] [PubMed: 17138821]
  7. Bluhm EC, Ronckers C, Hayashi RJ, et al.: Cause-specific mortality and second cancer incidence after non-Hodgkin lymphoma: a report from the Childhood Cancer Survivor Study. Blood 111 (8): 4014-21, 2008. [PMC free article: PMC2288716] [PubMed: 18258798]
  8. Anderson JR, Jenkin RD, Wilson JF, et al.: Long-term follow-up of patients treated with COMP or LSA2L2 therapy for childhood non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: a report of CCG-551 from the Childrens Cancer Group. J Clin Oncol 11 (6): 1024-32, 1993. [PubMed: 8501488]
  9. Brugières L, Pacquement H, Le Deley MC, et al.: Single-drug vinblastine as salvage treatment for refractory or relapsed anaplastic large-cell lymphoma: a report from the French Society of Pediatric Oncology. J Clin Oncol 27 (30): 5056-61, 2009. [PubMed: 19738127]
  10. Mori T, Takimoto T, Katano N, et al.: Recurrent childhood anaplastic large cell lymphoma: a retrospective analysis of registered cases in Japan. Br J Haematol 132 (5): 594-7, 2006. [PubMed: 16445832]
  11. Woessmann W, Zimmermann M, Lenhard M, et al.: Relapsed or refractory anaplastic large-cell lymphoma in children and adolescents after Berlin-Frankfurt-Muenster (BFM)-type first-line therapy: a BFM-group study. J Clin Oncol 29 (22): 3065-71, 2011. [PubMed: 21709186]
  12. Mossé YP, Lim MS, Voss SD, et al.: Safety and activity of crizotinib for paediatric patients with refractory solid tumours or anaplastic large-cell lymphoma: a Children's Oncology Group phase 1 consortium study. Lancet Oncol 14 (6): 472-80, 2013. [PMC free article: PMC3730818] [PubMed: 23598171]
  13. Pro B, Advani R, Brice P, et al.: Brentuximab vedotin (SGN-35) in patients with relapsed or refractory systemic anaplastic large-cell lymphoma: results of a phase II study. J Clin Oncol 30 (18): 2190-6, 2012. [PubMed: 22614995]
  14. Azizkhan RG, Dudgeon DL, Buck JR, et al.: Life-threatening airway obstruction as a complication to the management of mediastinal masses in children. J Pediatr Surg 20 (6): 816-22, 1985. [PubMed: 4087108]
  15. King DR, Patrick LE, Ginn-Pease ME, et al.: Pulmonary function is compromised in children with mediastinal lymphoma. J Pediatr Surg 32 (2): 294-9; discussion 299-300, 1997. [PubMed: 9044140]
  16. Shamberger RC, Holzman RS, Griscom NT, et al.: Prospective evaluation by computed tomography and pulmonary function tests of children with mediastinal masses. Surgery 118 (3): 468-71, 1995. [PubMed: 7652680]
  17. Prakash UB, Abel MD, Hubmayr RD: Mediastinal mass and tracheal obstruction during general anesthesia. Mayo Clin Proc 63 (10): 1004-11, 1988. [PubMed: 3172849]
  18. Pui CH, Mahmoud HH, Wiley JM, et al.: Recombinant urate oxidase for the prophylaxis or treatment of hyperuricemia in patients With leukemia or lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 19 (3): 697-704, 2001. [PubMed: 11157020]
  19. Goldman SC, Holcenberg JS, Finklestein JZ, et al.: A randomized comparison between rasburicase and allopurinol in children with lymphoma or leukemia at high risk for tumor lysis. Blood 97 (10): 2998-3003, 2001. [PubMed: 11342423]
  20. Cairo MS, Bishop M: Tumour lysis syndrome: new therapeutic strategies and classification. Br J Haematol 127 (1): 3-11, 2004. [PubMed: 15384972]
  21. Cairo MS, Coiffier B, Reiter A, et al.: Recommendations for the evaluation of risk and prophylaxis of tumour lysis syndrome (TLS) in adults and children with malignant diseases: an expert TLS panel consensus. Br J Haematol 149 (4): 578-86, 2010. [PubMed: 20331465]
  22. Galardy PJ, Hochberg J, Perkins SL, et al.: Rasburicase in the prevention of laboratory/clinical tumour lysis syndrome in children with advanced mature B-NHL: a Children's Oncology Group Report. Br J Haematol 163 (3): 365-72, 2013. [PMC free article: PMC3835461] [PubMed: 24032600]
  23. Coiffier B, Altman A, Pui CH, et al.: Guidelines for the management of pediatric and adult tumor lysis syndrome: an evidence-based review. J Clin Oncol 26 (16): 2767-78, 2008. [PubMed: 18509186]
  24. Rhodes MM, Delbeke D, Whitlock JA, et al.: Utility of FDG-PET/CT in follow-up of children treated for Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphoma. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 28 (5): 300-6, 2006. [PubMed: 16772881]
  25. Nakatani K, Nakamoto Y, Watanabe K, et al.: Roles and limitations of FDG PET in pediatric non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Clin Nucl Med 37 (7): 656-62, 2012. [PubMed: 22691506]
  26. Ulaner GA, Lilienstein J, Gönen M, et al.: False-Positive [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose-avid lymph nodes on positron emission tomography-computed tomography after allogeneic but not autologous stem-cell transplantation in patients with lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 32 (1): 51-6, 2014. [PubMed: 24248697]
  27. Bhojwani D, McCarville MB, Choi JK, et al.: The role of FDG-PET/CT in the evaluation of residual disease in paediatric non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Br J Haematol 168 (6): 845-53, 2015. [PMC free article: PMC4351138] [PubMed: 25382494]
  28. Picardi M, De Renzo A, Pane F, et al.: Randomized comparison of consolidation radiation versus observation in bulky Hodgkin's lymphoma with post-chemotherapy negative positron emission tomography scans. Leuk Lymphoma 48 (9): 1721-7, 2007. [PubMed: 17786707]
  29. Dunleavy K, Pittaluga S, Maeda LS, et al.: Dose-adjusted EPOCH-rituximab therapy in primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma. N Engl J Med 368 (15): 1408-16, 2013. [PMC free article: PMC4568999] [PubMed: 23574119]

Mature B-cell NHL

Burkitt and Burkitt-like Lymphoma/Leukemia

Incidence

Burkitt and Burkitt-like lymphoma/leukemia in the United States accounts for about 40% of childhood non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) and exhibits a consistent, aggressive clinical behavior.[1-3] The overall incidence of Burkitt lymphoma/leukemia in the United States is 2.5 cases per 1 million person-years and is higher among boys than girls (3.9 vs. 1.1).[2,4] (Refer to Table 1 for more information on the incidence of Burkitt lymphoma by age and gender distribution.)

Tumor biology

The malignant cells show a mature B-cell phenotype and are negative for the enzyme terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase. These malignant cells usually express surface immunoglobulin, most bearing a clonal surface immunoglobulin M with either kappa or lambda light chains. A variety of additional B-cell markers (e.g., CD19, CD20, CD22) are usually present, and most childhood Burkitt and Burkitt-like lymphoma/leukemia express CALLA (CD10).[1]

Burkitt lymphoma/leukemia expresses a characteristic chromosomal translocation, usually t(8;14) and more rarely t(8;22) or t(2;8). Each of these translocations juxtaposes the c-myc oncogene and immunoglobulin locus regulatory elements, resulting in the inappropriate expression of c-myc, a gene involved in cellular proliferation.[3,5,6] The presence of one of the variant translocations t(2;8) or t(8;22) does not appear to affect response or outcome.[7]

The distinction between Burkitt and Burkitt-like lymphoma/leukemia is controversial. Burkitt lymphoma/leukemia consists of uniform, small, noncleaved cells, whereas the diagnosis of Burkitt-like lymphoma/leukemia is highly disputed among pathologists because of features that are consistent with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma.[8]

Cytogenetic evidence of c-myc rearrangement is the gold standard for diagnosis of Burkitt lymphoma/leukemia. For cases in which cytogenetic analysis is not available, the World Health Organization (WHO) has recommended that the Burkitt-like diagnosis be reserved for lymphoma resembling Burkitt lymphoma/leukemia or with more pleomorphism, large cells, and a proliferation fraction (i.e., MIB-1 or Ki-67 immunostaining) of 99% or greater.[1]

Studies have demonstrated that the vast majority of Burkitt-like or atypical Burkitt lymphoma/leukemia has a gene expression signature similar to Burkitt lymphoma/leukemia.[9,10] Additionally, as many as 30% of pediatric diffuse large B-cell lymphoma cases will have a gene signature similar to Burkitt lymphoma/leukemia.

[9,11]

Clinical presentation

The most common primary sites of disease are the abdomen and the lymphatic tissue of Waldeyer ring.[3,4] Other sites of involvement include testes, bone, skin, bone marrow, and central nervous system (CNS). While lung involvement does not tend to occur, pleural and peritoneal spread is seen.

Prognostic factors

Refer to the Prognosis and Prognostic Factors for Childhood NHL section of this summary for information on prognostic factors for Burkitt lymphoma/leukemia.

Standard treatment options for Burkitt and Burkitt-like lymphoma/leukemia

The treatment of Burkitt and Burkitt-like lymphoma/leukemia is the same as treatment for diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. The following discussion is pertinent to the treatment of both types of childhood NHL.

Unlike mature B-lineage NHL seen in adults, there is no difference in outcome based on histology (Burkitt or Burkitt-like lymphoma/leukemia or diffuse large B-cell lymphoma). Pediatric Burkitt and Burkitt-like lymphoma/leukemia and diffuse large B-cell lymphoma are clinically very aggressive and are treated with very intensive regimens.[12-16]

Tumor lysis syndrome is often present at diagnosis or after initiation of treatment. This emergent clinical situation should be anticipated and addressed before treatment is started. (Refer to the Tumor lysis syndrome section in the Treatment Option Overview for Childhood NHL section of this summary for more information.)

Current treatment strategies are based on risk stratification as described in Table 4. Involvement of the bone marrow may lead to confusion as to whether the patient has lymphoma or leukemia. Traditionally, patients with more than 25% marrow blasts are classified as having mature B-cell leukemia, and those with fewer than 25% marrow blasts are classified as having lymphoma. It is not clear whether these arbitrary definitions are biologically distinct, but there is no question that patients with Burkitt leukemia should be treated with protocols designed for Burkitt leukemia.[12,14]

Table 4. FAB/LMB and BFM Staging Schemas for B-cell NHL

StratumDisease Manifestation
FAB/LMB International Study [13,14,17]ACompletely resected stage I and abdominal stage II
BaMultiple extra-abdominal sites
Nonresected stage I and II, III, IV (marrow <25% blasts, no CNS disease)
CMature B-cell ALL (>25% blasts in marrow) and/or CNS disease
BFM Group [18]R1Completely resected stage I and abdominal stage II
R2Nonresected stage I or II and stage III with LDH <500 IU/L
R3Stage III with LDH 500–999 IU/L
Stage IV, B-ALL (>25% blasts), no CNS disease, and LDH <1,000 IU/L
R4Stage III, IV, B-cell ALL with LDH >1,000 IU/L
Any CNS disease

ALL = acute lymphoblastic leukemia; BFM = Berlin-Frankfurt-Münster; CNS= central nervous system; FAB = French-American-British; LDH = lactate dehydrogenase; NHL = non-Hodgkin lymphoma.

aBased on results of the FAB-96/LMB study, a serum LDH level more than twice the upper limit of normal has been used to define a group B high-risk group in the international B-NHL study ANHL1131 (NCT01595048).[13]

The following studies have contributed to the development of current treatment regimens for pediatric Burkitt and Burkitt-like lymphoma/leukemia and diffuse large B-cell lymphoma.

Evidence (chemotherapy):

  1. The Berlin-Frankfurt-Münster (BFM) group has treated risk group R1 (completely resected disease) with two cycles of multiagent chemotherapy (GER-GPOH-NHL-BFM-90 and GER-GPOH-NHL-BFM-95).[12,18] For unresected stage I or stage II disease (R2), patients received a cytoreductive phase followed by five cycles of chemotherapy.[12,18]
    • In the NHL-BFM-90 study, it was shown that reducing the dose of methotrexate did not affect the results for low-stage disease.[18]
    • In the NHL-BFM-95 study, it was demonstrated that prolonging the duration of methotrexate infusion did not improve outcome for patients with low-stage disease.[12]
    • Event-free survival (EFS) with best therapy in NHL-BFM-95 was more than 95% for R1 and R2 group patients.[12]
  2. In the NHL-BFM-95 study, reducing the infusion time of methotrexate from 24 hours to 4 hours for R3 and R4 group patients resulted in less mucositis, but inferior outcome.[12]
    • EFS with best therapy in NHL-BFM-95 was 93% for R3 and R4 group patients.[12]
    • Inferior outcome was observed for patients with CNS disease at presentation (70% 3-year EFS).[18]
  3. The French Society of Pediatric Oncology and French-American-British (FAB) studies have treated completely resected stage I and abdominal stage II (group A) patients with two cycles of multiagent chemotherapy, without intrathecal chemotherapy (COG-C5961 [FAB/LMB-96]).[17][Level of evidence: 2A]
    • The 3-year EFS was 98% for stage I or stage II.[13]
  4. For unresected stage I through IV disease (group B), the above-mentioned FAB study demonstrated that reducing the duration of therapy to four cycles of chemotherapy after a cytoreduction phase and reducing the cumulative doses of cyclophosphamide and doxorubicin did not affect outcome.[13]
    • The 3-year EFS was 90% for stage III and 86% for stage IV (CNS-negative) patients.
    • Patients with a lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) level more than twice the upper limit of normal had an EFS of 86% compared with 96% in those with lower LDH levels.
  5. In group C patients in the FAB study, reduction in cumulative dose of therapy and number of maintenance cycles resulted in inferior outcome.[14]
    • Patients with leukemic disease only, and no CNS disease, had a 3-year EFS of 90%, while patients with CNS disease at presentation had a 70% 3-year EFS.
    • Patients who were CNS-positive but marrow-negative did better, with an EFS of 82%, while those with combined marrow and CNS disease at diagnosis had an EFS of only 61%.
    • This study identified response to prophase reduction as the most significant prognostic factor, with poor responders (i.e., <20% resolution of disease) having an EFS of 30%.

Both the BFM and FAB/LMB studies demonstrated that omission of craniospinal irradiation, even in patients presenting with CNS disease, does not affect outcome (COG-C5961 [FAB/LMB-96] and NHL-BFM-90 [GER-GPOH-NHL-BFM-90]).[12-14,18]

Rituximab is a mouse/human chimeric monoclonal antibody targeting the CD20 antigen. Burkitt lymphoma/leukemia and diffuse large B-cell lymphoma both express high levels of CD20.[5] Rituximab has been safely combined with standard doxorubicin, cyclophosphamide, vincristine, and prednisone (CHOP) chemotherapy and has been shown to improve outcome in a randomized trial of adults with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (CAN-NCIC-LY9).[19] In children, a single-agent phase II study of rituximab performed by the BFM group showed activity in Burkitt lymphoma/leukemia.[20][Level of evidence: 2Div] A Children's Oncology Group (COG) pilot study (COG-ANHL01P1) added rituximab to baseline chemotherapy with FAB/LMB-96 therapy in patients with stage III and stage IV B-cell NHL. Compared with chemotherapy-only protocols, toxicity was similar, despite a trend toward higher peak rituximab levels in younger patients.[21]; [15][Level of evidence: 3iiiA] The contribution of rituximab in pediatric B-cell lymphoma is being evaluated in an international randomized phase III trial.[22]

Standard treatment options for Burkitt and Burkitt-like lymphoma/leukemia and diffuse large B-cell lymphoma are described in Table 5.

Table 5. Standard Treatment Options for Burkitt and Burkitt-like Lymphoma/Leukemia and Diffuse Large B-cell Lymphoma

Trial StratumDisease Manifestations Treatment
POG-8314/POG-8719/POG 9219 [23]Completely resected stage I and IIThree cycles of outpatient chemotherapy (no radiation or maintenance therapy).
COG-C5961 (FAB/LMB-96) [13,14,17]ACompletely resected stage I and abdominal stage II Two cycles of chemotherapy.
BMultiple extra-abdominal sites Prephase plus four cycles of chemotherapy (reduced-intensity arm).
Nonresected stage I and II, III, IV
Marrow <25% blasts
No CNS disease
CMature B-cell ALL (>25% blasts in marrow) and/or CNS disease Prephase + eight cycles of chemotherapy (full intensity arm).
GER-GPOH-NHL-BFM-95 [12,18]R1 Completely resected stage I and abdominal stage IITwo cycles of chemotherapy.
R2 Nonresected stage I/II and stage III with LDH <500 IU/LPrephase plus four cycles of chemotherapy (4-hour methotrexate infusion).
R3 Stage III with LDH 500–999 IU/LPrephase plus five cycles of chemotherapy (24-hour methotrexate infusion).
Stage IV, B-cell ALL (>25% blasts) and LDH <1,000 IU/L
No CNS disease
R4 Stage III, IV, B-cell ALL with LDH >1,000 IU/LPrephase plus six cycles of chemotherapy (24-hour methotrexate infusion).
Any CNS disease

ALL = acute lymphoblastic leukemia; BFM = Berlin-Frankfurt-Münster; CNS= central nervous system; COG = Children's Oncology Group; LDH = lactate dehydrogenase; NHL = non-Hodgkin lymphoma; POG = Pediatric Oncology Group.

Treatment options for recurrent Burkitt and Burkitt-like lymphoma/leukemia

There is no standard treatment option for patients with recurrent or progressive disease.

Treatment options for recurrent Burkitt and Burkitt-like lymphoma/leukemia and diffuse large B-cell lymphoma include the following:

  1. DECAL (dexamethasone, etoposide, cisplatin, cytarabine, and L-asparaginase).[24]
  2. ICE (ifosfamide, carboplatin, and etoposide) plus rituximab (for B-cell lymphoma).[25]
  3. Allogeneic or autologous stem cell transplantation (SCT).[26,27]
  4. Bispecific antibody (anti-CD20, anti-CD3).[28]

For recurrent or refractory B-lineage NHL, survival is generally 10% to 20%.[14,29-32] Chemoresistance makes remission difficult to achieve.

Evidence (rituximab therapy):

  1. A study from the United Kingdom for children with relapsed or refractory mature B-cell NHL and B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia showed the most favorable outcomes for those who received rituximab and autologous SCT. However, the study could not distinguish whether this relationship reflected that children who survived were those who remained well enough to tolerate chemotherapy and rituximab, achieved a response, and were eligible for transplantation.[33]
  2. The COG conducted a study of 20 patients (14 of whom had Burkitt lymphoma/leukemia) using rituximab, ifosfamide, carboplatin, and etoposide (R-ICE) to treat relapsed/refractory B-cell NHL (Burkitt lymphoma/leukemia and diffuse large B-cell lymphoma).[25][Level of evidence: 3iiA]
    • Study results showed a complete remission/partial remission rate of 60%.

If remission can be achieved, high-dose therapy and SCT remains the best option for survival. However, the benefit of autologous versus allogeneic SCT is unclear.[26,31,34,35]; [36][Level of evidence: 2A]; [37][Level of evidence: 3iiiDii]

Patients not in remission at time of transplant do significantly worse.[26,36] The very poor outcome of patients whose disease is refractory to salvage chemotherapy suggests that a transplant option should not be pursued in these patients.[38]

(Refer to the PDQ summary on Childhood Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation for more information about transplantation).

Evidence (SCT therapy):

  1. An analysis of the Center for International Blood and Marrow Transplant Research data demonstrated the following:[26]
    • No difference using either autologous or allogeneic donor stem cell sources, with 2-year EFS of 50% for diffuse large B-cell lymphoma and 30% for Burkitt lymphoma/leukemia patients who survived to have a transplant.
    • Some graft-versus-lymphoma effect has been implied by the lower relapse rate in the allogeneic SCT patients, balanced, however, by the higher treatment-related mortality.
  2. A small, single-center, prospective study used autologous transplantation followed by reduced-intensity allogeneic SCT in relapsed NHL.[27]
    • The study reported a 60% EFS.

Current Clinical Trials

Check the list of NCI-supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with childhood Burkitt lymphoma, stage I childhood small noncleaved cell lymphoma, stage II childhood small noncleaved cell lymphoma, stage III childhood small noncleaved cell lymphoma, stage IV childhood small noncleaved cell lymphoma and recurrent childhood small noncleaved cell lymphoma. The list of clinical trials can be further narrowed by location, drug, intervention, and other criteria.

General information about clinical trials is also available from the NCI website.

Diffuse Large B-cell Lymphoma

Primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma, previously considered a subtype of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, is now a separate entity in the most recent WHO classification. (Refer to the Primary Mediastinal B-cell Lymphoma section of this summary for more information.)

Incidence

Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma is a mature B-cell neoplasm that represents 10% to 20% of pediatric NHL.[2,3,39] Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma occurs more frequently during the second decade of life than during the first decade.[2,40] (Refer to Table 1 for more information on the incidence of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma by age and gender distribution.)

Tumor biology

The World Health Organization (WHO) classification system does not recommend subclassification of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma based on morphologic variants (e.g., immunoblastic, centroblastic).[41]

Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma in children and adolescents differs biologically from diffuse large B-cell lymphoma in adults in the following ways:

  • The vast majority of pediatric diffuse large B-cell lymphoma cases have a germinal center B-cell phenotype, as assessed by immunohistochemical analysis of selected proteins found in normal germinal center B cells, such as the BCL6 gene product and CD10.[7,42,43] The age at which the favorable germinal center subtype changes to the less favorable nongerminal center subtype was shown to be a continuous variable.[44]
  • Pediatric diffuse large B-cell lymphoma rarely demonstrates the t(14;18) translocation involving the immunoglobulin heavy-chain gene and the BCL2 gene that is seen adults.[42]
  • As many as 30% of patients younger than 14 years with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma will have a gene signature similar to Burkitt lymphoma/leukemia.[9,11]
  • In contrast to adult diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, pediatric cases show a high frequency of abnormalities at the MYC locus (chromosome 8q24), with approximately one-third of pediatric cases showing MYC rearrangement and with approximately one-half of the nonrearranged cases showing MYC gain or amplification.[11,45]
  • A subset of pediatric diffuse large B-cell lymphoma cases was found to have a translocation that juxtaposes the IRF4 oncogene next to one of the immunoglobulin loci. Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma cases with an IRF4 translocation were significantly more frequent in children than in adults (15% vs. 2%), were germinal center–derived B-cell lymphomas, and were associated with favorable prognosis compared with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma cases lacking this abnormality.
    [46]

Clinical presentation

Pediatric diffuse large B-cell lymphoma may present in a manner clinically similar to Burkitt or Burkitt-like lymphoma/leukemia, although it is more often localized and less often involves the bone marrow or CNS.[39,40,47] (Refer to the Clinical presentation section in the Burkitt and Burkitt-like Lymphoma/Leukemia section of this summary for more information.)

Prognostic factors

Refer to the Prognosis and Prognostic Factors for Childhood NHL section of this summary for information on prognostic factors for diffuse large B-cell lymphoma.

Treatment options for diffuse large B-cell lymphoma

As in Burkitt and Burkitt-like lymphoma/leukemia, current treatment strategies are based on risk stratification, as described in Table 4. The treatment of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma is the same as the treatment of Burkitt and Burkitt-like lymphoma/leukemia. Refer to the Standard treatment options for Burkitt and Burkitt-like lymphoma/leukemia section of this summary for information on the treatment of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma.

Treatment options for recurrent diffuse large B-cell lymphoma

The treatment of recurrent diffuse large B-cell lymphoma is the same as treatment of recurrent Burkitt and Burkitt-like lymphoma/leukemia. Refer to the Treatment options for recurrent Burkitt and Burkitt-like lymphoma/leukemia section of this summary for more information.

Current Clinical Trials

Check the list of NCI-supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with childhood diffuse large cell lymphoma, stage I childhood large cell lymphoma, stage II childhood large cell lymphoma, stage III childhood large cell lymphoma, stage IV childhood large cell lymphoma and recurrent childhood large cell lymphoma. The list of clinical trials can be further narrowed by location, drug, intervention, and other criteria.

General information about clinical trials is also available from the NCI website.

Primary Mediastinal B-cell Lymphoma

Incidence

In the pediatric population, primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma is predominantly seen in older adolescents, accounting for 1% to 2% of all pediatric NHL cases.[40,48-50]

Tumor biology

Primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma was previously considered a subtype of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, but is now a separate entity in the most recent World Health Organization (WHO) classification.[51] These tumors arise in the mediastinum from thymic B-cells and show a diffuse large cell proliferation with sclerosis that compartmentalizes neoplastic cells.

Primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma can be very difficult to distinguish morphologically from the following types of lymphoma:

  • Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma: Cell surface markers are similar to the ones seen in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, such as CD19, CD20, CD22, CD79a, and PAX-5. Primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma often lacks cell surface immunoglobulin expression but may display cytoplasmic immunoglobulins. CD30 expression is commonly present.[51]
  • Hodgkin lymphoma: This type of lymphoma may be difficult to clinically and morphologically distinguish from Hodgkin lymphoma, especially with small mediastinal biopsies because of extensive sclerosis and necrosis.

Primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma is associated with distinctive chromosomal aberrations (gains in chromosome 9p and 2p in regions that involve JAK2 and c-rel, respectively) [49,50] and commonly shows inactivation of SOCS1 by either mutation or gene deletion.[52,53] Primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma has a distinctly different gene expression profile from diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, but its gene expression profile has features similar to those seen in Hodgkin lymphoma.

[54,55]

Clinical presentation

As the name would suggest, primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma occurs in the mediastinum. The tumor can be locally invasive (e.g., pericardial and lung extension) and can be associated with the superior vena caval syndrome. The tumor can disseminate outside the thoracic cavity with nodal and extranodal involvement, with predilection to the kidneys; however, CNS and marrow involvement are exceedingly rare.[51]

Prognostic factors

Refer to the Prognosis and Prognostic Factors for Childhood NHL section of this summary for information on prognostic factors for primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma.

Treatment options for primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma

Treatment options for primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma include the following:

  1. Dose-adjusted etoposide, doxorubicin, cyclophosphamide, vincristine, prednisone, and rituximab (DA-EPOCH-R)

Pediatric and adolescent patients with stage III primary mediastinal large B-cell lymphoma did significantly worse on the FAB/LMB-96 (NCT00002757) study, with a 5-year EFS of 66% compared with 85% for adolescents with nonmediastinal diffuse large B-cell lymphoma.[56][Level of evidence: 2A] Similarly on NHL-BFM-95, patients with primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma had an EFS of 50% at 3 years.[12] However, a study of young adults treated with DA-EPOCH-R showed excellent disease-free survival.[57]

Evidence (DA-EPOCH-R):

  1. A single-arm study in young adults utilized the DA-EPOCH-R regimen (usually six cycles) with filgrastim and no radiation therapy.[57][Level of evidence: 2A]
    • The 5-year EFS was 93% and overall survival (OS) was 97%.
    • At short-term follow-up, there was no evidence of cardiac toxicity, despite a high cumulative dose of doxorubicin for those who went through most of the anthracycline-dose escalations.
    • An important finding in this study was the prognostic value of end-of-therapy imaging. Among 12 patients who had residual mediastinal masses at the end of therapy, 9 of the 12 had positive positron emission tomography scans. Seven of these nine patients had the masses resected, but no viable tumor was found.
    • A concern for using this regimen is the significantly higher cumulative doses of alkylating agents and anthracyclines administered than used in previous regimens.
  2. A single-arm modification of DA-EPOCH-R (usually six cycles with filgrastim and no radiation therapy) was completed by the BFM group, in which the cumulative doxorubicin dose was kept at 360 mg/m2 and intrathecal chemotherapy was added.[58]
    • The study showed a 2-year OS of 92% among the 15 consecutive pediatric patients treated.

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  28. Schuster FR, Stanglmaier M, Woessmann W, et al.: Immunotherapy with the trifunctional anti-CD20 x anti-CD3 antibody FBTA05 (Lymphomun) in paediatric high-risk patients with recurrent CD20-positive B cell malignancies. Br J Haematol 169 (1): 90-102, 2015. [PubMed: 25495919]
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  30. Atra A, Gerrard M, Hobson R, et al.: Outcome of relapsed or refractory childhood B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukaemia and B-cell non-Hodgkin's lymphoma treated with the UKCCSG 9003/9002 protocols. Br J Haematol 112 (4): 965-8, 2001. [PubMed: 11298592]
  31. Attarbaschi A, Dworzak M, Steiner M, et al.: Outcome of children with primary resistant or relapsed non-Hodgkin lymphoma and mature B-cell leukemia after intensive first-line treatment: a population-based analysis of the Austrian Cooperative Study Group. Pediatr Blood Cancer 44 (1): 70-6, 2005. [PubMed: 15368550]
  32. Cairo MS, Sposto R, Hoover-Regan M, et al.: Childhood and adolescent large-cell lymphoma (LCL): a review of the Children's Cancer Group experience. Am J Hematol 72 (1): 53-63, 2003. [PubMed: 12508269]
  33. Anoop P, Sankpal S, Stiller C, et al.: Outcome of childhood relapsed or refractory mature B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma and acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Leuk Lymphoma 53 (10): 1882-8, 2012. [PubMed: 22448922]
  34. Ladenstein R, Pearce R, Hartmann O, et al.: High-dose chemotherapy with autologous bone marrow rescue in children with poor-risk Burkitt's lymphoma: a report from the European Lymphoma Bone Marrow Transplantation Registry. Blood 90 (8): 2921-30, 1997. [PubMed: 9376572]
  35. Sandlund JT, Bowman L, Heslop HE, et al.: Intensive chemotherapy with hematopoietic stem-cell support for children with recurrent or refractory NHL. Cytotherapy 4 (3): 253-8, 2002. [PubMed: 12194721]
  36. Harris RE, Termuhlen AM, Smith LM, et al.: Autologous peripheral blood stem cell transplantation in children with refractory or relapsed lymphoma: results of Children's Oncology Group study A5962. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant 17 (2): 249-58, 2011. [PMC free article: PMC3072756] [PubMed: 20637881]
  37. Andion M, Molina B, Gonzalez-Vicent M, et al.: High-dose busulfan and cyclophosphamide as a conditioning regimen for autologous peripheral blood stem cell transplantation in childhood non-Hodgkin lymphoma patients: a long-term follow-up study. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 33 (3): e89-91, 2011. [PubMed: 21358341]
  38. Fujita N, Mori T, Mitsui T, et al.: The role of hematopoietic stem cell transplantation with relapsed or primary refractory childhood B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma and mature B-cell leukemia: a retrospective analysis of enrolled cases in Japan. Pediatr Blood Cancer 51 (2): 188-92, 2008. [PubMed: 18428432]
  39. Reiter A, Klapper W: Recent advances in the understanding and management of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma in children. Br J Haematol 142 (3): 329-47, 2008. [PubMed: 18537979]
  40. Burkhardt B, Zimmermann M, Oschlies I, et al.: The impact of age and gender on biology, clinical features and treatment outcome of non-Hodgkin lymphoma in childhood and adolescence. Br J Haematol 131 (1): 39-49, 2005. [PubMed: 16173961]
  41. Stein H, Warnke RA, Chan WC: Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), NOS. In: Swerdlow SH, Campo E, Harris NL, et al., eds.: WHO Classification of Tumours of Haematopoietic and Lymphoid Tissues. 4th ed. Lyon, France: International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2008, pp 233-7.
  42. Oschlies I, Klapper W, Zimmermann M, et al.: Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma in pediatric patients belongs predominantly to the germinal-center type B-cell lymphomas: a clinicopathologic analysis of cases included in the German BFM (Berlin-Frankfurt-Munster) Multicenter Trial. Blood 107 (10): 4047-52, 2006. [PubMed: 16424389]
  43. Miles RR, Raphael M, McCarthy K, et al.: Pediatric diffuse large B-cell lymphoma demonstrates a high proliferation index, frequent c-Myc protein expression, and a high incidence of germinal center subtype: Report of the French-American-British (FAB) international study group. Pediatr Blood Cancer 51 (3): 369-74, 2008. [PMC free article: PMC2712231] [PubMed: 18493992]
  44. Klapper W, Kreuz M, Kohler CW, et al.: Patient age at diagnosis is associated with the molecular characteristics of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Blood 119 (8): 1882-7, 2012. [PubMed: 22238326]
  45. Poirel HA, Cairo MS, Heerema NA, et al.: Specific cytogenetic abnormalities are associated with a significantly inferior outcome in children and adolescents with mature B-cell non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: results of the FAB/LMB 96 international study. Leukemia 23 (2): 323-31, 2009. [PMC free article: PMC2988438] [PubMed: 19020548]
  46. Salaverria I, Philipp C, Oschlies I, et al.: Translocations activating IRF4 identify a subtype of germinal center-derived B-cell lymphoma affecting predominantly children and young adults. Blood 118 (1): 139-47, 2011. [PubMed: 21487109]
  47. Lones MA, Perkins SL, Sposto R, et al.: Large-cell lymphoma arising in the mediastinum in children and adolescents is associated with an excellent outcome: a Children's Cancer Group report. J Clin Oncol 18 (22): 3845-53, 2000. [PubMed: 11078498]
  48. Seidemann K, Tiemann M, Lauterbach I, et al.: Primary mediastinal large B-cell lymphoma with sclerosis in pediatric and adolescent patients: treatment and results from three therapeutic studies of the Berlin-Frankfurt-Münster Group. J Clin Oncol 21 (9): 1782-9, 2003. [PubMed: 12721255]
  49. Bea S, Zettl A, Wright G, et al.: Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma subgroups have distinct genetic profiles that influence tumor biology and improve gene-expression-based survival prediction. Blood 106 (9): 3183-90, 2005. [PMC free article: PMC1895326] [PubMed: 16046532]
  50. Oschlies I, Burkhardt B, Salaverria I, et al.: Clinical, pathological and genetic features of primary mediastinal large B-cell lymphomas and mediastinal gray zone lymphomas in children. Haematologica 96 (2): 262-8, 2011. [PMC free article: PMC3031694] [PubMed: 20971819]
  51. Jaffe ES, Harris NL, Stein H, et al.: Introduction and overview of the classification of the lymphoid neoplasms. In: Swerdlow SH, Campo E, Harris NL, et al., eds.: WHO Classification of Tumours of Haematopoietic and Lymphoid Tissues. 4th ed. Lyon, France: International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2008, pp 157-66.
  52. Melzner I, Bucur AJ, Brüderlein S, et al.: Biallelic mutation of SOCS-1 impairs JAK2 degradation and sustains phospho-JAK2 action in the MedB-1 mediastinal lymphoma line. Blood 105 (6): 2535-42, 2005. [PubMed: 15572583]
  53. Mestre C, Rubio-Moscardo F, Rosenwald A, et al.: Homozygous deletion of SOCS1 in primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma detected by CGH to BAC microarrays. Leukemia 19 (6): 1082-4, 2005. [PubMed: 15815722]
  54. Rosenwald A, Wright G, Leroy K, et al.: Molecular diagnosis of primary mediastinal B cell lymphoma identifies a clinically favorable subgroup of diffuse large B cell lymphoma related to Hodgkin lymphoma. J Exp Med 198 (6): 851-62, 2003. [PMC free article: PMC2194208] [PubMed: 12975453]
  55. Savage KJ, Monti S, Kutok JL, et al.: The molecular signature of mediastinal large B-cell lymphoma differs from that of other diffuse large B-cell lymphomas and shares features with classical Hodgkin lymphoma. Blood 102 (12): 3871-9, 2003. [PubMed: 12933571]
  56. Gerrard M, Waxman IM, Sposto R, et al.: Outcome and pathologic classification of children and adolescents with mediastinal large B-cell lymphoma treated with FAB/LMB96 mature B-NHL therapy. Blood 121 (2): 278-85, 2013. [PMC free article: PMC3544113] [PubMed: 23149845]
  57. Dunleavy K, Pittaluga S, Maeda LS, et al.: Dose-adjusted EPOCH-rituximab therapy in primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma. N Engl J Med 368 (15): 1408-16, 2013. [PMC free article: PMC4568999] [PubMed: 23574119]
  58. Woessmann W, Lisfeld J, Burkhardt B, et al.: Therapy in primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma. N Engl J Med 369 (3): 282, 2013. [PubMed: 23863060]

Lymphoblastic Lymphoma

Incidence

Lymphoblastic lymphoma comprises approximately 20% of childhood non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL).[1-3] (Refer to Table 1 for more information on the incidence of lymphoblastic lymphoma by age and gender distribution.)

Tumor Biology

Lymphoblastic lymphomas are usually positive for terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase, with more than 75% having a T-cell immunophenotype and the remainder having a precursor B-cell phenotype.[3,4]

As opposed to pediatric acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), chromosomal abnormalities and the molecular biology of pediatric lymphoblastic lymphoma are not well characterized. The Berlin-Frankfurt-Münster (BFM) group reported that loss of heterozygosity at chromosome 6q was observed in 12% of patients and NOTCH1 mutations were seen in 60% of patients, but NOTCH1 mutations are rarely seen in patients with loss of heterozygosity in 6q16.

[5,6]

Clinical Presentation

As many as 75% of patients with T-cell lymphoblastic lymphoma will present with an anterior mediastinal mass, which may manifest as dyspnea, wheezing, stridor, dysphagia, or swelling of the head and neck.

Pleural and/or pericardial effusions may be present, and the involvement of lymph nodes, usually above the diaphragm, may be a prominent feature. There may also be involvement of bone, skin, bone marrow, central nervous system (CNS), abdominal organs (but rarely bowel), and occasionally other sites, such as lymphoid tissue of Waldeyer ring, testes, bone, or subcutaneous tissue. Abdominal involvement is less than what is observed in Burkitt lymphoma/leukemia.

Involvement of the bone marrow may lead to confusion as to whether the patient has lymphoma with bone marrow involvement or leukemia with extramedullary disease. Traditionally, patients with more than 25% marrow blasts are considered to have T-cell ALL, and those with fewer than 25% marrow blasts are considered to have stage IV T-cell lymphoblastic lymphoma. The World Health Organization (WHO) classifies lymphoblastic lymphoma as the same disease as ALL.[7] The debate remains as to whether they truly represent the same disease. It is not yet clear whether these arbitrary definitions are biologically distinct or relevant for treatment design.

Prognostic Factors

Refer to the Prognosis and Prognostic Factors for Childhood NHL section of this summary for information on prognostic factors for lymphoblastic lymphoma.

Standard Treatment Options for Lymphoblastic Lymphoma

Current data do not suggest superiority for the following treatment options.

Standard treatment options for lymphoblastic lymphoma include the following:

  1. GER-GPOH-NHL-BFM-95: Prednisone, dexamethasone, vincristine, daunorubicin, doxorubicin, L-asparaginase, cyclophosphamide, cytarabine, methotrexate, 6-mercaptopurine, 6-thioguanine,[8] and CNS radiation therapy for CNS-positive patients only. Treatment duration for T-cell and B-cell precursor lymphoblastic lymphoma is 24 months.[9 ,10]
  2. COG-A5971 (NCT00004228): Prednisone, dexamethasone, vincristine, daunorubicin, doxorubicin, L-asparaginase, cyclophosphamide, cytarabine, methotrexate, 6-mercaptopurine, and 6-thioguanine.[11]
    1. Stage I or II (arm A0; localized disease): Modified Children's Cancer Group (CCG) BFM regimen (prednisone, dexamethasone, vincristine, daunorubicin, doxorubicin, L-asparaginase, cyclophosphamide, cytarabine, methotrexate, 6-mercaptopurine, 6-thioguanine, and reduced number of intrathecal treatments during maintenance).
    2. Stage III or IV (2 × 2 randomization):

      First randomization

      • Arm A1 (disseminated disease, no CNS disease): Modified CCG BFM regimen without intensification. No high-dose methotrexate administered during the interim maintenance phase, but intrathecal therapy is administered throughout the maintenance phase.
      • Arm B1 (disseminated disease, CNS-positive disease): GER-GPOH-NHL-BFM-95 regimen without intensification and without intrathecal therapy during maintenance.

      Second randomization

      • Arm A2 (disseminated disease, no CNS disease): Modified CCG BFM regimen (arm A1) with intensified induction.
      • Arm B2 (disseminated disease, CNS-positive disease): GER-GPOH-NHL-BFM-95 regimen (arm B1) with intensified induction and radiation therapy to the CNS.
    Equivalent outcome was observed for arms A1, B1, A2, and B2.

Patients with low-stage (stage I or stage II) lymphoblastic lymphoma have long-term disease-free survival (DFS) rates of about 60% with short, pulsed chemotherapy followed by 6 months of maintenance, with an overall survival (OS) greater than 90%.[12,13] However, with the use of an ALL approach and induction, consolidation, and maintenance therapy for a total of 24 months, DFS rates higher than 90% have been reported for children with low-stage lymphoblastic lymphoma.[9-11]

Patients with high-stage (stage III or stage IV) lymphoblastic lymphoma have long-term survival rates higher than 80%.[8-10] Mediastinal radiation is not necessary for patients with mediastinal masses, except in the emergency treatment of symptomatic superior vena caval obstruction or airway obstruction. In these cases, either corticosteroid therapy or low-dose radiation is usually employed. (Refer to the Mediastinal masses section of the Treatment Option Overview for Childhood NHL section of this summary for more information.)

Evidence (high-stage treatment regimens for lymphoblastic lymphoma):

  1. In the GER-GPOH-NHL-BFM-90 study, the 5-year DFS was 90%, and there was no difference in outcome between stage III and stage IV patients.[9] Precursor B-cell lymphoblastic lymphoma appeared to have similar results using the same therapy.[2]
  2. In the GER-GPOH-NHL-BFM-95 study, the prophylactic cranial radiation was omitted, and the intensity of induction therapy was decreased slightly.[10]
    • There were no significant increases in CNS relapses, suggesting cranial radiation may be reserved for patients with CNS disease at diagnosis.
    • Of interest, the probability of 5-year event-free survival (EFS) rates was worse in NHL-BFM-95 (82%) than in NHL-BFM-90 (90%). It was proposed that the major difference in EFS between NHL-BFM-90 and NHL-BFM-95 resulted from the increased number of subsequent neoplasms observed in NHL-BFM-95. NHL-BFM-95 also had a reduction of asparaginase and doxorubicin in induction, which may have affected outcome, although this difference was not statistically different.
  3. A trial (A5971 [NCT00004228]) of stage III and stage IV lymphoblastic lymphoma patients evaluated two strategies for CNS prophylaxis, without the use of CNS irradiation. Patients were randomly assigned to high-dose methotrexate in interim maintenance (BFM-95) or intrathecal chemotherapy throughout maintenance (CCG-BFM).[8][Level of evidence: 1iiA]
    • The overall incidence of CNS relapse was 1.2% and there was no difference between arms for CNS relapse, DFS, or OS.
    • The benefit of intensifying induction therapy with increased doses of daunomycin and the addition of cyclophosphamide was also studied in a randomized fashion. Intensification of induction did not improve DFS or OS, but increased grade III and grade IV toxicities.

The Pediatric Oncology Group conducted a trial to test the effectiveness of the addition of high-dose methotrexate in T-cell ALL and T-cell lymphoblastic lymphoma. In the lymphoma patients, high-dose methotrexate did not demonstrate benefit. In the small cohort (n = 66) of lymphoma patients who did not receive high-dose methotrexate, the 5-year EFS was 88%.[14][Level of evidence: 1iiA] Of note, all of these patients received prophylactic craniospinal radiation therapy, which has been demonstrated not to be required in T-cell lymphoblastic lymphoma patients.[8,10]

In addition to the NHL-BFM-95 trial, a single-center study reported that patients treated for lymphoblastic lymphoma had a higher incidence of subsequent neoplasms than did patients treated for other pediatric NHL.[15] However, studies from the Children's Oncology Group (COG) and the Childhood Cancer Survivor Study Group do not support this finding.[8,16,17]

Treatment Options for Recurrent Lymphoblastic Lymphoma

For recurrent or refractory lymphoblastic lymphoma, reports of survival range from 10% to 40%.[16,18]; [19,20][Level of evidence: 3iiiA] As with Burkitt lymphoma/leukemia, chemoresistant disease is common.

There are no standard treatment options for patients with recurrent or progressive disease.

Treatment options for recurrent lymphoblastic lymphoma include the following:

  1. DECAL (dexamethasone, etoposide, cisplatin, cytarabine, and L-asparaginase).[21]
  2. ICE (ifosfamide, carboplatin, and etoposide).[22]
  3. Allogeneic stem cell transplantation (SCT).[23]

Evidence (treatment of recurrent lymphoblastic lymphoma):

  1. A COG phase II study of nelarabine (compound 506U78) as a single agent demonstrated a response rate of 40%.[24]
  2. A BFM study showed a 14% OS for patients relapsing after BFM front-line therapy and all patients who survived had undergone an allogeneic SCT.[20]
  3. A Center for International Blood and Marrow Transplant Research analysis demonstrated that EFS was significantly worse using an autologous (4%) versus allogeneic (40%) donor stem cell source, with all failures resulting from progressive disease.[23]

Treatment Options Under Clinical Evaluation for Lymphoblastic Lymphoma

Treatment options under clinical evaluation for lymphoblastic lymphoma include the following:

  • NCI-2014-00712; AALL1231 (NCT02112916) (Combination Chemotherapy With or Without Bortezomib in Treating Younger Patients With Newly Diagnosed T-Cell ALL or Stage II–IV T-Cell Lymphoblastic Lymphoma): This phase III trial is utilizing a modified augmented BFM regimen for patients aged 1 to 30 years with T-cell ALL. Patients are classified into one of three risk groups (standard, intermediate, or very high) based on morphologic response at day 29, minimal residual disease (MRD) status at day 29 and end of consolidation, and CNS status at diagnosis. Age and presenting leukocyte count are not used to stratify patients. The objectives of the trial include the following:
    -

    To compare EFS in patients who are randomly assigned to receive or not to receive bortezomib on a modified augmented BFM backbone. For those randomly assigned to receive bortezomib, it is given during the induction phase (four doses) and again during the delayed intensification phase (four doses).

    -

    To determine the safety and feasibility of modifying standard COG therapy for T-cell ALL by using dexamethasone instead of prednisone during the induction and maintenance phases and additional doses of PEG-asparaginase during the induction and delayed intensification phases.

    -

    To determine whether prophylactic cranial radiation can be omitted in 85% to 90% of T-cell ALL patients (non–very high risk, non-CNS3) without an increase in relapse risk, compared with historic controls.

    -

    To determine the proportion of patients with end consolidation MRD >0.1% who become MRD-negative after intensification therapy using three high-risk BFM blocks that include high-dose cytarabine, high-dose methotrexate, ifosfamide, and etoposide.

  • COG-AALL0932 (Risk-Adapted Chemotherapy in Younger Patients With Newly Diagnosed Standard-Risk ALL or Localized B-lineage Lymphoblastic Lymphoma): This trial subdivides standard-risk patients into two groups: low risk and average risk. Low risk is defined as the presence of all of the following: NCI-standard risk age/white blood cell count, favorable genetics (e.g., double trisomies or ETV6-RUNX1), CNS1 at presentation, and low MRD (<0.01% by flow cytometry) at day 8 (peripheral blood) and day 29 (marrow). Average risk includes other NCI standard-risk patients excluding those with high day 29 MRD morphologic induction failure or other unfavorable presenting features (e.g., CNS3, iAMP21, low hypodiploidy, MLL translocations, and BCR-ABL).
    All patients will receive a three-drug induction (dexamethasone, vincristine, and intravenous [IV] PEG-L-asparaginase) with intrathecal chemotherapy. For postinduction therapy, low-risk patients will be randomly assigned to receive one of the following:
    -

    A regimen based on POG-9904 (NCT00005585), including six courses of intermediate-dose methotrexate (1 g/m2) but without any alkylating agents or anthracyclines.

    -

    A modified BFM backbone including two interim maintenance phases with escalating doses of IV methotrexate (no leucovorin) and one delayed intensification phase.

    The objective is not to prove superiority of either regimen, but rather, to determine whether excellent outcomes (at least 95% 5-year DFS) can be achieved.
    All average-risk patients will receive a modified BFM backbone as postinduction treatment. For these patients, the study is comparing, in a randomized fashion, two doses of weekly oral methotrexate during the maintenance phase (20 mg/m2 and 40 mg/m2) to determine whether the higher dose favorably impacts DFS. Average-risk patients are also eligible to participate in a randomized comparison of two schedules of vincristine/dexamethasone pulses during maintenance (delivered every 4 weeks or every 12 weeks). The objective of this randomization is to determine whether vincristine/dexamethasone pulses can be delivered less frequently without adversely impacting outcome.

Information about ongoing clinical trials is available from the NCI website.

Current Clinical Trials

Check the list of NCI-supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with stage I childhood lymphoblastic lymphoma, stage II childhood lymphoblastic lymphoma, stage III childhood lymphoblastic lymphoma, stage IV childhood lymphoblastic lymphoma and recurrent childhood lymphoblastic lymphoma. The list of clinical trials can be further narrowed by location, drug, intervention, and other criteria.

General information about clinical trials is also available from the NCI website.

References

  1. Percy CL, Smith MA, Linet M, et al.: Lymphomas and reticuloendothelial neoplasms. In: Ries LA, Smith MA, Gurney JG, et al., eds.: Cancer incidence and survival among children and adolescents: United States SEER Program 1975-1995. Bethesda, Md: National Cancer Institute, SEER Program, 1999. NIH Pub.No. 99-4649, pp 35-50. Also available online. Last accessed March 31, 2016.
  2. Burkhardt B, Zimmermann M, Oschlies I, et al.: The impact of age and gender on biology, clinical features and treatment outcome of non-Hodgkin lymphoma in childhood and adolescence. Br J Haematol 131 (1): 39-49, 2005. [PubMed: 16173961]
  3. Sandlund JT, Downing JR, Crist WM: Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma in childhood. N Engl J Med 334 (19): 1238-48, 1996. [PubMed: 8606720]
  4. Neth O, Seidemann K, Jansen P, et al.: Precursor B-cell lymphoblastic lymphoma in childhood and adolescence: clinical features, treatment, and results in trials NHL-BFM 86 and 90. Med Pediatr Oncol 35 (1): 20-7, 2000. [PubMed: 10881003]
  5. Bonn BR, Rohde M, Zimmermann M, et al.: Incidence and prognostic relevance of genetic variations in T-cell lymphoblastic lymphoma in childhood and adolescence. Blood 121 (16): 3153-60, 2013. [PubMed: 23396305]
  6. Burkhardt B, Moericke A, Klapper W, et al.: Pediatric precursor T lymphoblastic leukemia and lymphoblastic lymphoma: Differences in the common regions with loss of heterozygosity at chromosome 6q and their prognostic impact. Leuk Lymphoma 49 (3): 451-61, 2008. [PubMed: 18297521]
  7. Swerdlow SH, Campo E, Harris NL, et al., eds.: WHO Classification of Tumours of Haematopoietic and Lymphoid Tissues. 4th ed. Lyon, France: International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2008.
  8. Termuhlen AM, Smith LM, Perkins SL, et al.: Disseminated lymphoblastic lymphoma in children and adolescents: results of the COG A5971 trial: a report from the Children's Oncology Group. Br J Haematol 162 (6): 792-801, 2013. [PubMed: 23889312]
  9. Reiter A, Schrappe M, Ludwig WD, et al.: Intensive ALL-type therapy without local radiotherapy provides a 90% event-free survival for children with T-cell lymphoblastic lymphoma: a BFM group report. Blood 95 (2): 416-21, 2000. [PubMed: 10627444]
  10. Burkhardt B, Woessmann W, Zimmermann M, et al.: Impact of cranial radiotherapy on central nervous system prophylaxis in children and adolescents with central nervous system-negative stage III or IV lymphoblastic lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 24 (3): 491-9, 2006. [PubMed: 16421426]
  11. Termuhlen AM, Smith LM, Perkins SL, et al.: Outcome of newly diagnosed children and adolescents with localized lymphoblastic lymphoma treated on Children's Oncology Group trial A5971: a report from the Children's Oncology Group. Pediatr Blood Cancer 59 (7): 1229-33, 2012. [PubMed: 22488718]
  12. Anderson JR, Jenkin RD, Wilson JF, et al.: Long-term follow-up of patients treated with COMP or LSA2L2 therapy for childhood non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: a report of CCG-551 from the Childrens Cancer Group. J Clin Oncol 11 (6): 1024-32, 1993. [PubMed: 8501488]
  13. Link MP, Shuster JJ, Donaldson SS, et al.: Treatment of children and young adults with early-stage non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. N Engl J Med 337 (18): 1259-66, 1997. [PubMed: 9345074]
  14. Asselin BL, Devidas M, Wang C, et al.: Effectiveness of high-dose methotrexate in T-cell lymphoblastic leukemia and advanced-stage lymphoblastic lymphoma: a randomized study by the Children's Oncology Group (POG 9404). Blood 118 (4): 874-83, 2011. [PMC free article: PMC3292437] [PubMed: 21474675]
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  16. Abromowitch M, Sposto R, Perkins S, et al.: Shortened intensified multi-agent chemotherapy and non-cross resistant maintenance therapy for advanced lymphoblastic lymphoma in children and adolescents: report from the Children's Oncology Group. Br J Haematol 143 (2): 261-7, 2008. [PMC free article: PMC3057023] [PubMed: 18759768]
  17. Bluhm EC, Ronckers C, Hayashi RJ, et al.: Cause-specific mortality and second cancer incidence after non-Hodgkin lymphoma: a report from the Childhood Cancer Survivor Study. Blood 111 (8): 4014-21, 2008. [PMC free article: PMC2288716] [PubMed: 18258798]
  18. Attarbaschi A, Dworzak M, Steiner M, et al.: Outcome of children with primary resistant or relapsed non-Hodgkin lymphoma and mature B-cell leukemia after intensive first-line treatment: a population-based analysis of the Austrian Cooperative Study Group. Pediatr Blood Cancer 44 (1): 70-6, 2005. [PubMed: 15368550]
  19. Mitsui T, Mori T, Fujita N, et al.: Retrospective analysis of relapsed or primary refractory childhood lymphoblastic lymphoma in Japan. Pediatr Blood Cancer 52 (5): 591-5, 2009. [PubMed: 19156862]
  20. Burkhardt B, Reiter A, Landmann E, et al.: Poor outcome for children and adolescents with progressive disease or relapse of lymphoblastic lymphoma: a report from the berlin-frankfurt-muenster group. J Clin Oncol 27 (20): 3363-9, 2009. [PubMed: 19433688]
  21. Kobrinsky NL, Sposto R, Shah NR, et al.: Outcomes of treatment of children and adolescents with recurrent non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and Hodgkin's disease with dexamethasone, etoposide, cisplatin, cytarabine, and l-asparaginase, maintenance chemotherapy, and transplantation: Children's Cancer Group Study CCG-5912. J Clin Oncol 19 (9): 2390-6, 2001. [PubMed: 11331317]
  22. Kung FH, Harris MB, Krischer JP: Ifosfamide/carboplatin/etoposide (ICE), an effective salvaging therapy for recurrent malignant non-Hodgkin lymphoma of childhood: a Pediatric Oncology Group phase II study. Med Pediatr Oncol 32 (3): 225-6, 1999. [PubMed: 10064193]
  23. Gross TG, Hale GA, He W, et al.: Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for refractory or recurrent non-Hodgkin lymphoma in children and adolescents. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant 16 (2): 223-30, 2010. [PMC free article: PMC2911354] [PubMed: 19800015]
  24. Berg SL, Blaney SM, Devidas M, et al.: Phase II study of nelarabine (compound 506U78) in children and young adults with refractory T-cell malignancies: a report from the Children's Oncology Group. J Clin Oncol 23 (15): 3376-82, 2005. [PubMed: 15908649]

Anaplastic Large Cell Lymphoma

Incidence

Anaplastic large cell lymphoma accounts for approximately 10% of childhood non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) cases.[1] (Refer to Table 1 for more information on the incidence of anaplastic large cell lymphoma by age and gender distribution.)

Tumor Biology

While the predominant immunophenotype of anaplastic large cell lymphoma is mature T-cell, null-cell disease (i.e., no T-cell, B-cell, or natural killer [NK]-cell surface antigen expression) does occur. The World Health Organization (WHO) classifies anaplastic large cell lymphoma as a subtype of peripheral T-cell lymphoma.[2]

All anaplastic large cell lymphoma cases are CD30-positive. More than 90% of pediatric anaplastic large cell lymphoma cases have a chromosomal rearrangement involving the ALK gene. About 85% of these chromosomal rearrangements will be t(2;5)(p23;q35), leading to the expression of the fusion protein NPM-ALK; the other 15% of cases are comprised of variant ALK translocations.[3] Anti-ALK immunohistochemical staining pattern is quite specific for the type of ALK translocation. Cytoplasm and nuclear ALK staining is associated with NPM-ALK fusion protein, whereas cytoplasmic staining only of ALK is associated with the variant ALK translocations.[3]

In adults, ALK-positive anaplastic large cell lymphoma is viewed differently from other peripheral T-cell lymphomas because prognosis tends to be superior.[4] Also, adult ALK-negative anaplastic large cell lymphoma patients have an inferior outcome compared with patients who have ALK-positive disease.[5] In children, however, this difference in outcome between ALK-positive and ALK-negative disease has not been demonstrated. In addition, no correlation has been found between outcome and the specific ALK-translocation type.[6-8]

In a European series of 375 children and adolescents with systemic ALK-positive anaplastic large cell lymphoma, the presence of a small cell or lymphohistiocytic component was observed in 32% of patients and was significantly associated with a high risk of failure in the multivariate analysis, controlling for clinical characteristics (hazard ratio, 2.0; P = .002).[7] The prognostic implication of the small cell variant of anaplastic large cell lymphoma was also shown in the COG-ANHL0131 (NCT00059839) study, despite a different chemotherapy backbone.

[8]

Clinical Presentation

Clinically, systemic anaplastic large cell lymphoma has a broad range of presentations. These include involvement of lymph nodes and a variety of extranodal sites, particularly skin and bone and, less often, gastrointestinal tract, lung, pleura, and muscle. Involvement of the central nervous system (CNS) and bone marrow is uncommon.

Anaplastic large cell lymphoma is often associated with systemic symptoms (e.g., fever, weight loss) and a prolonged waxing and waning course, making diagnosis difficult and often delayed. Patients with anaplastic large cell lymphoma may present with signs and symptoms consistent with hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis.[9]

There is a subgroup of anaplastic large cell lymphoma with leukemic peripheral blood involvement. These patients usually exhibit significant respiratory distress with diffuse lung infiltrates or pleural effusions and have hepatosplenomegaly.[10 ,11]

Prognostic Factors

Refer to the Prognosis and Prognostic Factors for Childhood NHL section of this summary for information on prognostic factors for anaplastic large cell lymphoma.

Standard Treatment Options for Anaplastic Large Cell Lymphoma

Children and adolescents with high-stage (stage III or IV) anaplastic large cell lymphoma have a disease-free survival of approximately 60% to 75%.[12-17]

It is unclear which treatment strategy is best for anaplastic large cell lymphoma. Current data do not suggest superiority of one treatment regimen over another for these standard treatment options.

Commonly used treatment regimens include the following:

  1. POG-8314/POG-8719/POG 9219: Three cycles of chemotherapy (no radiation or maintenance therapy) for stage I and stage II disease.[18]
  2. GER-GPOH-NHL-BFM-90: Prephase plus three cycles of chemotherapy (only for completely resected disease).[13]
  3. APO: Doxorubicin, prednisone, and vincristine.[14] This regimen can be administered in the outpatient setting. The duration of therapy is 52 weeks and the cumulative dose of doxorubicin in 300 mg/m2. No alkylator therapy is given.
  4. FRE-IGR-ALCL99: Dexamethasone, cyclophosphamide, ifosfamide, etoposide, doxorubicin, intravenous (IV) methotrexate (3 g/m2 arm), cytarabine, prednisolone, and vinblastine.[19] This regimen usually requires hospitalization for administration. The total duration of therapy is 5 months and the cumulative dose of doxorubicin is 150 mg/m2.

Evidence (treatment of anaplastic large cell lymphoma):

  1. The POG-9219 study for low-stage lymphoma used three cycles of doxorubicin, cyclophosphamide, vincristine, and prednisone (CHOP).[18]
    • A 5-year event-free survival (EFS) of 88% for large cell lymphoma (anaplastic large cell lymphoma and diffuse large B-cell lymphoma) patients was reported.
  2. The FRE-IGR-ALCL99 trial used three cycles of chemotherapy after cytoreductive prophase for patients with stage I completely resected disease. The therapy for patients without complete resection was the same as the therapy for patients with disseminated disease.[20][Level of evidence: 2A]
    • The minority of stage I patients (6 of 36) had complete resections and there were no treatment failures for these 6 patients.
    • The 3-year EFS (81%) and overall survival (OS) (97%) for patients without complete resection were not statistically different from the outcomes for patients with higher-stage disease.
  3. The German Berlin-Frankfurt-Münster (BFM) group used six cycles of intensive pulsed therapy, similar to their B-cell NHL therapy (GER-GPOH-NHL-BFM-90 [NHL-BFM-90]).[13,21,22]; [19][Level of evidence: 1iiA] Building on these results, the European Intergroup for Childhood NHL group conducted the FRE-IGR-ALCL99 study (based on the GER-GPOH-NHL-BFM-90 regimen).
    • First, this randomized study demonstrated that methotrexate 1 g/m2 infused over 24 hours plus intrathecal methotrexate and methotrexate 3 g/m2 infused over 3 hours without intrathecal methotrexate yielded similar outcomes.[21][Level of evidence: 1iiC] However, methotrexate 3 g/m2 over 3 hours had less toxicity than methotrexate 1 g/m2 over 24 hours.[21]; [19][Level of evidence: 1iiDi]
    • Secondly, FRE-IGR-ALCL99 randomly assigned patients to limited vinblastine or prolonged (1 year) vinblastine exposure. Patients who received the vinblastine plus chemotherapy regimen had a better EFS in the first year after therapy (91%) than those who did not receive vinblastine (74%); however, after 2 years of follow-up, the EFS was 73% for both groups.[22][Level of evidence: 1iiDi] This suggests that the longer therapy in the vinblastine group delayed, but did not prevent, relapse.
  4. COG-ANHL0131 (NCT00059839) showed that the addition of vinblastine to the doxorubicin, prednisone, and vincristine (APO) regimen increased toxicity, but did not improve the survival.[8]
  5. The earlier Pediatric Oncology Group (POG) trial (POG-9317) demonstrated no benefit of adding methotrexate and high-dose cytarabine to 52 weeks of the APO regimen.[14]
  6. The Italian Association of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology group used a leukemia-like regimen for 24 months in LNH-92, with similar results as other regimens, although the duration of first remission was prolonged by the longer therapy.[15]
  7. The CCG-5941 study tested an approach similar to LNH-92, with more intensive induction and consolidation with maintenance for 1 year total duration of therapy, with similar outcome and similar significant increase in hematologic toxicity.[16][Level of evidence: 2A]

CNS involvement in anaplastic large cell lymphoma is rare at diagnosis. In an international study of systemic childhood anaplastic large cell lymphoma, 12 of 463 patients (2.6%) had CNS involvement, three of whom had isolated CNS disease (primary CNS lymphoma). For the CNS-positive group who received multiagent chemotherapy, including high-dose methotrexate, cytarabine, and intrathecal treatment, at a median follow-up of 4.1 years, the EFS was 50% (95% confidence interval, 25%–75%) and OS was 74% (45%–91%). The role of cranial radiation therapy has been difficult to assess.[23]

Treatment Options for Recurrent Anaplastic Large Cell Lymphoma

As opposed to mature B-cell or lymphoblastic lymphoma, the prognosis for recurrent or refractory anaplastic large cell lymphoma is 40% to 60%.[24-26]

There is no standard approach for the treatment of recurrent/refractory anaplastic large cell lymphoma.

Treatment options for recurrent anaplastic large cell lymphoma include the following:

  1. DECAL (dexamethasone, etoposide, cisplatin, cytarabine, and L-asparaginase).[27]
  2. ICE (ifosfamide, carboplatin, and etoposide).[28]
  3. Vinblastine.[29]
  4. Allogeneic or autologous stem cell transplantation (SCT).[30]

Chemotherapy, followed by autologous SCT or allogeneic SCT if remission can be achieved, has been employed in this setting.[25,26,30,31]

Evidence (autologous vs. allogeneic SCT):

  1. A retrospective study of relapsed or refractory anaplastic large cell lymphoma in patients who received BFM-type first-line therapy, reinduction chemotherapy, followed by autologous SCT reported the following:[26][Level of evidence: 2A]
    • A 5-year EFS rate of 59% and an OS rate of 77%. However, outcome of patients with bone marrow or CNS involvement, relapse during first-line therapy, or CD3-positive anaplastic large cell lymphoma was poor. These patients may benefit from allogeneic transplantation.
  2. Several additional studies suggest that allogeneic SCT may result in better outcome for refractory/relapsed anaplastic large cell lymphoma.[30-32]

Vinblastine is active as a single agent in recurrent/refractory anaplastic large cell lymphoma; it induced complete remission (CR) in 25 of 30 evaluable patients (83%) in one study.[29] Nine of 25 patients treated with vinblastine alone remained in CR, with median follow-up of 7 years since the end of treatment.[29][Level of evidence: 3iiiA]

Crizotinib, a kinase inhibitor that blocks the activity of the NPM-ALK fusion protein, has been evaluated in children and adults with relapsed/refractory anaplastic large cell lymphoma.[33] Seven of nine children with anaplastic large cell lymphoma treated on the pediatric phase I study of crizotinib achieved complete responses.[34]

Brentuximab vedotin has been evaluated in adults with anaplastic large cell lymphoma. A phase II study of adults and adolescents with CD30-positive cancers that administered a dose of 1.8 mg/kg of brentuximab vedotin showed CR rates of approximately 55% to 60% and partial remission rates of 29%.[35]

Treatment Options Under Clinical Evaluation for Anaplastic Large Cell Lymphoma

Treatment options under clinical evaluation for anaplastic large cell lymphoma include the following:

  • COG-ANHL12P1 (NCT01979536) (A Randomized Phase II study of Brentuximab Vedotin and Crizotinib in Patients with Newly Diagnosed Anaplastic Large Cell Lymphoma): This is a feasibility study for safety and toxicity. Patients are randomly assigned to receive crizotinib or brentuximab vedotin in combination with the FRE-IGR-ALCL99 regimen of dexamethasone, cyclophosphamide, ifosfamide, etoposide, doxorubicin, IV methotrexate (3 g/m2 arm), cytarabine, prednisolone, and vinblastine.
  • COG-ADVL0912 (Crizotinib in Treating Young Patients With Relapsed or Refractory Solid Tumors or Anaplastic Large Cell Lymphoma): The ALK inhibitor, crizotinib, is under phase I evaluation in children. The study has a stratum for children with ALK and anaplastic large cell lymphoma.
  • COG-ADVL1212 (NCT01606878) (Crizotinib and Combination Chemotherapy in Treating Younger Patients With Relapsed or Refractory Solid Tumors or Anaplastic Large Cell Lymphoma): This phase I study is evaluating adverse events associated with crizotinib and multiagent chemotherapy and the maximum tolerated dose of crizotinib that can be administered.

Information about ongoing clinical trials is available from the NCI website.

Current Clinical Trials

Check the list of NCI-supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with stage I childhood anaplastic large cell lymphoma, stage II childhood anaplastic large cell lymphoma, stage III childhood anaplastic large cell lymphoma, stage IV childhood anaplastic large cell lymphoma and recurrent childhood anaplastic large cell lymphoma. The list of clinical trials can be further narrowed by location, drug, intervention, and other criteria.

General information about clinical trials is also available from the NCI website.

References

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  2. Swerdlow SH, Campo E, Harris NL, et al., eds.: WHO Classification of Tumours of Haematopoietic and Lymphoid Tissues. 4th ed. Lyon, France: International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2008.
  3. Duyster J, Bai RY, Morris SW: Translocations involving anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK). Oncogene 20 (40): 5623-37, 2001. [PubMed: 11607814]
  4. Savage KJ, Harris NL, Vose JM, et al.: ALK- anaplastic large-cell lymphoma is clinically and immunophenotypically different from both ALK+ ALCL and peripheral T-cell lymphoma, not otherwise specified: report from the International Peripheral T-Cell Lymphoma Project. Blood 111 (12): 5496-504, 2008. [PubMed: 18385450]
  5. Vose J, Armitage J, Weisenburger D, et al.: International peripheral T-cell and natural killer/T-cell lymphoma study: pathology findings and clinical outcomes. J Clin Oncol 26 (25): 4124-30, 2008. [PubMed: 18626005]
  6. Stein H, Foss HD, Dürkop H, et al.: CD30(+) anaplastic large cell lymphoma: a review of its histopathologic, genetic, and clinical features. Blood 96 (12): 3681-95, 2000. [PubMed: 11090048]
  7. Lamant L, McCarthy K, d'Amore E, et al.: Prognostic impact of morphologic and phenotypic features of childhood ALK-positive anaplastic large-cell lymphoma: results of the ALCL99 study. J Clin Oncol 29 (35): 4669-76, 2011. [PubMed: 22084369]
  8. Alexander S, Kraveka JM, Weitzman S, et al.: Advanced stage anaplastic large cell lymphoma in children and adolescents: results of ANHL0131, a randomized phase III trial of APO versus a modified regimen with vinblastine: a report from the children's oncology group. Pediatr Blood Cancer 61 (12): 2236-42, 2014. [PMC free article: PMC4682366] [PubMed: 25156886]
  9. Sevilla DW, Choi JK, Gong JZ: Mediastinal adenopathy, lung infiltrates, and hemophagocytosis: unusual manifestation of pediatric anaplastic large cell lymphoma: report of two cases. Am J Clin Pathol 127 (3): 458-64, 2007. [PubMed: 17276937]
  10. Onciu M, Behm FG, Raimondi SC, et al.: ALK-positive anaplastic large cell lymphoma with leukemic peripheral blood involvement is a clinicopathologic entity with an unfavorable prognosis. Report of three cases and review of the literature. Am J Clin Pathol 120 (4): 617-25, 2003. [PubMed: 14560573]
  11. Grewal JS, Smith LB, Winegarden JD 3rd, et al.: Highly aggressive ALK-positive anaplastic large cell lymphoma with a leukemic phase and multi-organ involvement: a report of three cases and a review of the literature. Ann Hematol 86 (7): 499-508, 2007. [PubMed: 17396261]
  12. Brugières L, Deley MC, Pacquement H, et al.: CD30(+) anaplastic large-cell lymphoma in children: analysis of 82 patients enrolled in two consecutive studies of the French Society of Pediatric Oncology. Blood 92 (10): 3591-8, 1998. [PubMed: 9808552]
  13. Seidemann K, Tiemann M, Schrappe M, et al.: Short-pulse B-non-Hodgkin lymphoma-type chemotherapy is efficacious treatment for pediatric anaplastic large cell lymphoma: a report of the Berlin-Frankfurt-Münster Group Trial NHL-BFM 90. Blood 97 (12): 3699-706, 2001. [PubMed: 11389005]
  14. Laver JH, Kraveka JM, Hutchison RE, et al.: Advanced-stage large-cell lymphoma in children and adolescents: results of a randomized trial incorporating intermediate-dose methotrexate and high-dose cytarabine in the maintenance phase of the APO regimen: a Pediatric Oncology Group phase III trial. J Clin Oncol 23 (3): 541-7, 2005. [PubMed: 15659500]
  15. Rosolen A, Pillon M, Garaventa A, et al.: Anaplastic large cell lymphoma treated with a leukemia-like therapy: report of the Italian Association of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology (AIEOP) LNH-92 protocol. Cancer 104 (10): 2133-40, 2005. [PubMed: 16211546]
  16. Lowe EJ, Sposto R, Perkins SL, et al.: Intensive chemotherapy for systemic anaplastic large cell lymphoma in children and adolescents: final results of Children's Cancer Group Study 5941. Pediatr Blood Cancer 52 (3): 335-9, 2009. [PMC free article: PMC2769495] [PubMed: 18985718]
  17. Pillon M, Gregucci F, Lombardi A, et al.: Results of AIEOP LNH-97 protocol for the treatment of anaplastic large cell lymphoma of childhood. Pediatr Blood Cancer 59 (5): 828-33, 2012. [PubMed: 22389307]
  18. Link MP, Shuster JJ, Donaldson SS, et al.: Treatment of children and young adults with early-stage non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. N Engl J Med 337 (18): 1259-66, 1997. [PubMed: 9345074]
  19. Brugières L, Le Deley MC, Rosolen A, et al.: Impact of the methotrexate administration dose on the need for intrathecal treatment in children and adolescents with anaplastic large-cell lymphoma: results of a randomized trial of the EICNHL Group. J Clin Oncol 27 (6): 897-903, 2009. [PubMed: 19139435]
  20. Attarbaschi A, Mann G, Rosolen A, et al.: Limited stage I disease is not necessarily indicative of an excellent prognosis in childhood anaplastic large cell lymphoma. Blood 117 (21): 5616-9, 2011. [PubMed: 21444917]
  21. Wrobel G, Mauguen A, Rosolen A, et al.: Safety assessment of intensive induction therapy in childhood anaplastic large cell lymphoma: report of the ALCL99 randomised trial. Pediatr Blood Cancer 56 (7): 1071-7, 2011. [PubMed: 21280197]
  22. Le Deley MC, Rosolen A, Williams DM, et al.: Vinblastine in children and adolescents with high-risk anaplastic large-cell lymphoma: results of the randomized ALCL99-vinblastine trial. J Clin Oncol 28 (25): 3987-93, 2010. [PubMed: 20679620]
  23. Williams D, Mori T, Reiter A, et al.: Central nervous system involvement in anaplastic large cell lymphoma in childhood: results from a multicentre European and Japanese study. Pediatr Blood Cancer 60 (10): E118-21, 2013. [PubMed: 23720354]
  24. Attarbaschi A, Dworzak M, Steiner M, et al.: Outcome of children with primary resistant or relapsed non-Hodgkin lymphoma and mature B-cell leukemia after intensive first-line treatment: a population-based analysis of the Austrian Cooperative Study Group. Pediatr Blood Cancer 44 (1): 70-6, 2005. [PubMed: 15368550]
  25. Mori T, Takimoto T, Katano N, et al.: Recurrent childhood anaplastic large cell lymphoma: a retrospective analysis of registered cases in Japan. Br J Haematol 132 (5): 594-7, 2006. [PubMed: 16445832]
  26. Woessmann W, Zimmermann M, Lenhard M, et al.: Relapsed or refractory anaplastic large-cell lymphoma in children and adolescents after Berlin-Frankfurt-Muenster (BFM)-type first-line therapy: a BFM-group study. J Clin Oncol 29 (22): 3065-71, 2011. [PubMed: 21709186]
  27. Kobrinsky NL, Sposto R, Shah NR, et al.: Outcomes of treatment of children and adolescents with recurrent non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and Hodgkin's disease with dexamethasone, etoposide, cisplatin, cytarabine, and l-asparaginase, maintenance chemotherapy, and transplantation: Children's Cancer Group Study CCG-5912. J Clin Oncol 19 (9): 2390-6, 2001. [PubMed: 11331317]
  28. Kung FH, Harris MB, Krischer JP: Ifosfamide/carboplatin/etoposide (ICE), an effective salvaging therapy for recurrent malignant non-Hodgkin lymphoma of childhood: a Pediatric Oncology Group phase II study. Med Pediatr Oncol 32 (3): 225-6, 1999. [PubMed: 10064193]
  29. Brugières L, Pacquement H, Le Deley MC, et al.: Single-drug vinblastine as salvage treatment for refractory or relapsed anaplastic large-cell lymphoma: a report from the French Society of Pediatric Oncology. J Clin Oncol 27 (30): 5056-61, 2009. [PubMed: 19738127]
  30. Gross TG, Hale GA, He W, et al.: Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for refractory or recurrent non-Hodgkin lymphoma in children and adolescents. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant 16 (2): 223-30, 2010. [PMC free article: PMC2911354] [PubMed: 19800015]
  31. Woessmann W, Peters C, Lenhard M, et al.: Allogeneic haematopoietic stem cell transplantation in relapsed or refractory anaplastic large cell lymphoma of children and adolescents--a Berlin-Frankfurt-Münster group report. Br J Haematol 133 (2): 176-82, 2006. [PubMed: 16611309]
  32. Fukano R, Mori T, Kobayashi R, et al.: Haematopoietic stem cell transplantation for relapsed or refractory anaplastic large cell lymphoma: a study of children and adolescents in Japan. Br J Haematol 168 (4): 557-63, 2015. [PubMed: 25312752]
  33. Gambacorti-Passerini C, Messa C, Pogliani EM: Crizotinib in anaplastic large-cell lymphoma. N Engl J Med 364 (8): 775-6, 2011. [PubMed: 21345110]
  34. Mossé YP, Lim MS, Voss SD, et al.: Safety and activity of crizotinib for paediatric patients with refractory solid tumours or anaplastic large-cell lymphoma: a Children's Oncology Group phase 1 consortium study. Lancet Oncol 14 (6): 472-80, 2013. [PMC free article: PMC3730818] [PubMed: 23598171]
  35. Pro B, Advani R, Brice P, et al.: Brentuximab vedotin (SGN-35) in patients with relapsed or refractory systemic anaplastic large-cell lymphoma: results of a phase II study. J Clin Oncol 30 (18): 2190-6, 2012. [PubMed: 22614995]

Lymphoproliferative Disease Associated With Immunodeficiency in Children

Incidence

The incidence of lymphoproliferative disease or lymphoma is 100-fold higher in immunocompromised children than in the general population. The cause of such immune deficiencies includes the following:

  • A genetically inherited defect (primary immunodeficiency).
  • Secondary to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection.
  • Iatrogenic following transplantation (solid organ transplantation or allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation [HSCT]). Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is associated with most of these tumors, but some tumors are not associated with any infectious agent.

Clinical Presentation

Non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) associated with immunodeficiency is usually aggressive, with most cases occurring in extralymphatic sites and a higher incidence of primary central nervous system (CNS) involvement.[1-4]

Lymphoproliferative Disease Associated With Primary Immunodeficiency

Lymphoproliferative disease observed in primary immunodeficiency usually shows a mature B-cell phenotype and large cell histology.[2] Mature T-cell lymphoma and anaplastic large cell lymphoma have been observed.[2] Children with primary immunodeficiency and NHL are more likely to have high-stage disease and present with symptoms related to extranodal disease, particularly the gastrointestinal tract and CNS.[2]

Treatment options for lymphoproliferative disease associated with primary immunodeficiency

Treatment options for lymphoproliferative disease associated with primary immunodeficiency include the following:

  1. Chemotherapy.
  2. Allogeneic stem cell transplantation (SCT).

Patients with primary immunodeficiency can achieve complete and durable remissions with standard chemotherapy regimens for NHL, although toxicity is increased.[2] Recurrences in these patients are common and may not represent the same clonal disease.[5] Immunologic correction through allogeneic SCT is often required to prevent recurrences.

Patients with DNA repair defects (e.g., ataxia-telangiectasia) are particularly difficult to treat.[6,7] Cytotoxic agents produce much more toxicity and greatly increase the risk of subsequent neoplasms in these patients. A Berlin-Frankfurt-Münster retrospective study showed the 10-year overall survival rate to be 58% in 38 children with ataxia telangiectasia or Nijmegen-breakage syndrome and acute lymphoblastic leukemia (n = 9), NHL (n = 28), and Hodgkin lymphoma (n = 1). Dosage-reduction of chemotherapeutic drugs was effective and reduced toxic side effects, but did not prevent subsequent neoplasms (10-year incidence, 25%).[8]

HIV-associated NHL

NHL in children with HIV often presents with fever, weight loss, and symptoms related to extranodal disease, such as abdominal pain or CNS symptoms.[1] Most childhood HIV-related NHL is of mature B-cell phenotype but with a spectrum, including primary effusion lymphoma, primary CNS lymphoma, mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT), Burkitt lymphoma/leukemia, and diffuse large B-cell lymphoma.[9,10]

HIV-associated NHL can be broadly grouped into the following three subcategories:

  1. Systemic (nodal and extranodal). Approximately 80% of all NHL in HIV patients is considered to be systemic.[1]
  2. Primary CNS lymphoma.
  3. Body cavity–based lymphoma, also referred to as primary effusion lymphoma. Primary effusion lymphoma, a unique lymphomatous effusion associated with the human herpesvirus-8 (HHV8) gene or Kaposi sarcoma herpesvirus, is primarily observed in adults infected with HIV but has been reported in HIV-infected children.[11]

Highly active antiretroviral therapy has decreased the incidence of NHL in HIV-positive individuals, particularly for primary CNS lymphoma cases.[12,13]

Treatment options for HIV-associated NHL

Treatment options for HIV-associated NHL include the following:

  1. Chemotherapy.

In the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy, children with HIV and NHL are treated with standard chemotherapy regimens for NHL, but careful attention to prophylaxis against and early detection of infection is warranted.[1,12,13] Treatment of recurrent disease is based on histology using standard approaches.

Posttransplant Lymphoproliferative Disease (PTLD)

Posttransplant lymphoproliferative disease (PTLD) represents a spectrum of clinically and morphologically heterogeneous lymphoid proliferations. Essentially all PTLD after HSCT is associated with EBV, but EBV-negative PTLD can be seen following solid organ transplant.[3] While most posttransplant lymphoproliferative diseases are of B-cell phenotype, approximately 10% are mature (peripheral) T-cell lymphomas.[4] The B-cell stimulation by EBV may result in multiple clones of proliferating B cells, and both polymorphic and monomorphic histologies may be present in a patient, even within the same lesion of PTLD.[14] Thus, histology of a single biopsied site may not be representative of the entire disease process.

The World Health Organization (WHO) has classified PTLD into the following three subtypes:[4]

  • Early lesion: Early lesions show germinal center expansion, but tissue architecture remains normal.
  • Polymorphic PTLD: Presence of infiltrating T cells, disruption of nodal architecture, and necrosis distinguish polymorphic PTLD from early lesions.
  • Monomorphic PTLD: Histologies observed in the monomorphic subtype are similar to those observed in NHL, with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma being the most common histology, followed by Burkitt lymphoma/leukemia, and with myeloma, plasmacytoma, and Hodgkin-like PTLD occurring rarely. T-cell PTLD is seen in about 10% of PTLD and may be EBV-positive or EBV-negative and is usually of the mature T-cell subtype.[4]

EBV lymphoproliferative disease posttransplant may manifest as isolated hepatitis, lymphoid interstitial pneumonitis, meningoencephalitis, or an infectious mononucleosis-like syndrome. The definition of PTLD is frequently limited to lymphomatous lesions (low stage or high stage), which are often extranodal (frequently in the allograft).[3] Although less common, PTLD may present as a rapidly progressive, high-stage disease that clinically resembles septic shock, which has a poor prognosis; however, the use of rituximab and low-dose chemotherapy may improve the outcome.[15,16]

Treatment options for PTLD

Treatment options for PTLD include the following:

  1. For localized resectable disease, surgical resection and, if possible, reduction of immunosuppressive therapy.
  2. Rituximab therapy alone.[17]
  3. Standard or slightly modified lymphoma-specific chemotherapy regimens for specific histology, with or without rituximab for B-cell PTLD.[18-20]
  4. For EBV-positive, B-cell PTLD, low-dose chemotherapy with or without rituximab.[16]; [21][Level of evidence: 3iiDiii]

First-line therapy for PTLD is to reduce immunosuppressive therapy as much as possible.[21,22] However, this may not be possible because of the increased risk for organ rejection or graft-versus-host disease (GVHD).

Rituximab, an anti-CD20 antibody, has been used in the posttransplant setting. In a study of 144 children and adults who developed post-HSCT PTLD, it was reported that approximately 70% of patients who received rituximab survived. Survival was associated with reduction of immunosuppression as well, but older age, extranodal disease, and acute graft-versus-host disease were predictors of poor outcome.[17][Level of evidence: 3iiiA] Rituximab as a single agent to treat PTLD after organ transplant has demonstrated efficacy in adult patients, but data are lacking in pediatric patients.

Low-intensity chemotherapy has been effective in EBV-positive, CD20-positive B-lineage PTLD.[16] A Children's Oncology Group study using rituximab plus cyclophosphamide and prednisone in children with PTLD after solid organ transplantation in whom immune suppression was reduced demonstrated a 67% event-free survival.[16][Level of evidence: 2A] Other studies suggest that modified conventional lymphoma therapy is effective for PTLD with c-myc translocations and Burkitt histology.[19,20][Level of evidence: 3iiDiii] Patients with T-cell or Hodgkin-like PTLD are usually treated with standard lymphoma-specific chemotherapy regimens.[23-26]

Anti-rejection therapy is usually decreased or discontinued when chemotherapy is given to avoid excessive toxicity. There are no data to guide the re-initiation of immunosuppressive therapy after chemotherapy treatment. There is little evidence of benefit for chemotherapy following SCT.

Treatment options under clinical evaluation for PTLD

Treatment options under clinical evaluation for lymphoproliferative disease associated with PTLD include the following:

  • Adoptive immunotherapy with either donor lymphocytes or ex vivo–generated EBV-specific cytotoxic T-cells have been effective in treating PTLD after blood or bone marrow transplant.[27,28] Although this approach has been demonstrated to be feasible in patients with PTLD after solid organ transplant, it has not been demonstrated to be as effective or practical.[29]

Information about ongoing clinical trials is available from the NCI website.

References

  1. McClain KL, Joshi VV, Murphy SB: Cancers in children with HIV infection. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am 10 (5): 1189-201, 1996. [PubMed: 8880205]
  2. Seidemann K, Tiemann M, Henze G, et al.: Therapy for non-Hodgkin lymphoma in children with primary immunodeficiency: analysis of 19 patients from the BFM trials. Med Pediatr Oncol 33 (6): 536-44, 1999. [PubMed: 10573576]
  3. Loren AW, Porter DL, Stadtmauer EA, et al.: Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder: a review. Bone Marrow Transplant 31 (3): 145-55, 2003. [PubMed: 12621474]
  4. Swerdlow SH, Webber SA, Chadburn A: Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorders. In: Swerdlow SH, Campo E, Harris NL, et al., eds.: WHO Classification of Tumours of Haematopoietic and Lymphoid Tissues. 4th ed. Lyon, France: International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2008, pp 343-9.
  5. Hoffmann T, Heilmann C, Madsen HO, et al.: Matched unrelated allogeneic bone marrow transplantation for recurrent malignant lymphoma in a patient with X-linked lymphoproliferative disease (XLP). Bone Marrow Transplant 22 (6): 603-4, 1998. [PubMed: 9758353]
  6. Sandoval C, Swift M: Treatment of lymphoid malignancies in patients with ataxia-telangiectasia. Med Pediatr Oncol 31 (6): 491-7, 1998. [PubMed: 9835901]
  7. Dembowska-Baginska B, Perek D, Brozyna A, et al.: Non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) in children with Nijmegen Breakage syndrome (NBS). Pediatr Blood Cancer 52 (2): 186-90, 2009. [PubMed: 18937313]
  8. Bienemann K, Burkhardt B, Modlich S, et al.: Promising therapy results for lymphoid malignancies in children with chromosomal breakage syndromes (Ataxia teleangiectasia or Nijmegen-breakage syndrome): a retrospective survey. Br J Haematol 155 (4): 468-76, 2011. [PubMed: 21923652]
  9. Ohno Y, Kosaka T, Muraoka I, et al.: Remission of primary low-grade gastric lymphomas of the mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue type in immunocompromised pediatric patients. World J Gastroenterol 12 (16): 2625-8, 2006. [PMC free article: PMC4088002] [PubMed: 16688815]
  10. Fedorova A, Mlyavaya T, Alexeichik A, et al.: Successful treatment of the HIV-associated Burkitt lymphoma in a three-year-old child. Pediatr Blood Cancer 47 (1): 92-3, 2006. [PubMed: 16047357]
  11. Jaffe ES: Primary body cavity-based AIDS-related lymphomas. Evolution of a new disease entity. Am J Clin Pathol 105 (2): 141-3, 1996. [PubMed: 8607435]
  12. Kirk O, Pedersen C, Cozzi-Lepri A, et al.: Non-Hodgkin lymphoma in HIV-infected patients in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Blood 98 (12): 3406-12, 2001. [PubMed: 11719381]
  13. Godot C, Patte C, Blanche S, et al.: Characteristics and prognosis of B-cell lymphoma in HIV-infected children in the HAART era. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 34 (7): e282-8, 2012. [PubMed: 22935659]
  14. Chadburn A, Cesarman E, Liu YF, et al.: Molecular genetic analysis demonstrates that multiple posttransplantation lymphoproliferative disorders occurring in one anatomic site in a single patient represent distinct primary lymphoid neoplasms. Cancer 75 (11): 2747-56, 1995. [PubMed: 7743481]
  15. Collins MH, Montone KT, Leahey AM, et al.: Autopsy pathology of pediatric posttransplant lymphoproliferative disorder. Pediatrics 107 (6): E89, 2001. [PubMed: 11389287]
  16. Gross TG, Orjuela MA, Perkins SL, et al.: Low-dose chemotherapy and rituximab for posttransplant lymphoproliferative disease (PTLD): a Children's Oncology Group Report. Am J Transplant 12 (11): 3069-75, 2012. [PMC free article: PMC3484187] [PubMed: 22883417]
  17. Styczynski J, Gil L, Tridello G, et al.: Response to rituximab-based therapy and risk factor analysis in Epstein Barr Virus-related lymphoproliferative disorder after hematopoietic stem cell transplant in children and adults: a study from the Infectious Diseases Working Party of the European Group for Blood and Marrow Transplantation. Clin Infect Dis 57 (6): 794-802, 2013. [PubMed: 23771985]
  18. Hayashi RJ, Kraus MD, Patel AL, et al.: Posttransplant lymphoproliferative disease in children: correlation of histology to clinical behavior. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 23 (1): 14-8, 2001. [PubMed: 11196263]
  19. Picarsic J, Jaffe R, Mazariegos G, et al.: Post-transplant Burkitt lymphoma is a more aggressive and distinct form of post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder. Cancer 117 (19): 4540-50, 2011. [PubMed: 21446044]
  20. Windebank K, Walwyn T, Kirk R, et al.: Post cardiac transplantation lymphoproliferative disorder presenting as t(8;14) Burkitt leukaemia/lymphoma treated with low intensity chemotherapy and rituximab. Pediatr Blood Cancer 53 (3): 392-6, 2009. [PubMed: 19459198]
  21. Gross TG, Bucuvalas JC, Park JR, et al.: Low-dose chemotherapy for Epstein-Barr virus-positive post-transplantation lymphoproliferative disease in children after solid organ transplantation. J Clin Oncol 23 (27): 6481-8, 2005. [PubMed: 16170157]
  22. Green M, Michaels MG, Webber SA, et al.: The management of Epstein-Barr virus associated post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorders in pediatric solid-organ transplant recipients. Pediatr Transplant 3 (4): 271-81, 1999. [PubMed: 10562971]
  23. Yang F, Li Y, Braylan R, et al.: Pediatric T-cell post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder after solid organ transplantation. Pediatr Blood Cancer 50 (2): 415-8, 2008. [PMC free article: PMC3419753] [PubMed: 17051534]
  24. Williams KM, Higman MA, Chen AR, et al.: Successful treatment of a child with late-onset T-cell post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder/lymphoma. Pediatr Blood Cancer 50 (3): 667-70, 2008. [PubMed: 17318876]
  25. Dharnidharka VR, Douglas VK, Hunger SP, et al.: Hodgkin's lymphoma after post-transplant lymphoproliferative disease in a renal transplant recipient. Pediatr Transplant 8 (1): 87-90, 2004. [PubMed: 15009846]
  26. Goyal RK, McEvoy L, Wilson DB: Hodgkin disease after renal transplantation in childhood. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 18 (4): 392-5, 1996. [PubMed: 8888750]
  27. Papadopoulos EB, Ladanyi M, Emanuel D, et al.: Infusions of donor leukocytes to treat Epstein-Barr virus-associated lymphoproliferative disorders after allogeneic bone marrow transplantation. N Engl J Med 330 (17): 1185-91, 1994. [PubMed: 8093146]
  28. Rooney CM, Smith CA, Ng CY, et al.: Infusion of cytotoxic T cells for the prevention and treatment of Epstein-Barr virus-induced lymphoma in allogeneic transplant recipients. Blood 92 (5): 1549-55, 1998. [PubMed: 9716582]
  29. Bollard CM, Gottschalk S, Torrano V, et al.: Sustained complete responses in patients with lymphoma receiving autologous cytotoxic T lymphocytes targeting Epstein-Barr virus latent membrane proteins. J Clin Oncol 32 (8): 798-808, 2014. [PMC free article: PMC3940538] [PubMed: 24344220]

Rare NHL Occurring in Children

Low-grade or intermediate-grade mature B-cell lymphomas, such as small lymphocytic lymphoma, mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) lymphoma, mantle cell lymphoma, myeloma, or follicular cell lymphoma, are rarely seen in children. The most recent World Health Organization (WHO) classification has identified pediatric follicular lymphoma and pediatric nodal marginal zone lymphoma as entities separate from their adult counterparts.[1]

In an attempt to learn more about the clinical and pathologic features of these rare types of pediatric non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL), the Children's Oncology Group (COG) has opened a registry study (COG-ANHL04B1). This study banks tissue for pathobiology studies and collects limited data on clinical presentation and outcome of therapy.

Pediatric Follicular Lymphoma

Pediatric follicular lymphoma is a disease that genetically and clinically differs from its adult counterpart. The genetic hallmark of adult follicular lymphoma, the translocation of t(14;18)(q32;q21) involving BCL2, is typically not detectable in pediatric follicular lymphoma.[2-4] Molecular alterations observed in pediatric follicular lymphoma include translocations of the immunoglobulin locus and IRF4, losses of regions of chromosome 1p, and mutations of TNFSFR14 on chromosome 1p.[5,6]

Pediatric follicular lymphoma predominantly occurs in males, is associated with a high proliferation rate, and is more likely to be localized disease.[7] In pediatric follicular lymphoma, a high-grade component (i.e., grade 3) resembling diffuse large B-cell lymphoma can frequently be detected at initial diagnosis but does not indicate a more aggressive clinical course in children.[2,4,8] Cervical lymph nodes and tonsils are common sites, but disease has also occurred in extranodal sites such as the testis, kidney, gastrointestinal tract, and parotid.[2-4,8-10]

Treatment options for pediatric follicular lymphoma

Follicular lymphoma is rare in children, with only case reports and case series to guide therapy. The outcome of pediatric follicular lymphoma is excellent, with an event-free survival (EFS) of about 95%.[2,4,7,8,10] In contrast to adult follicular lymphoma, the clinical course is not dominated by relapses.[2,4,8,9]

Treatment options for pediatric follicular lymphoma include the following:

  1. Surgery only.
  2. Multiagent chemotherapy.

For pediatric patients, it appears that BCL2 rearrangement negativity and a high proliferative index predict favorable disease.[2] In these patients, surgical resection with no further treatment is sufficient for completely resected, localized disease. For patients with BCL2-rearranged tumors, treatment similar to that of adult patients with follicular lymphoma is administered (refer to the PDQ summary on Adult Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment for more information).

One study suggested that for children with stage I disease who had a complete resection, a watch and wait approach without chemotherapy may be indicated. Patients with higher-stage disease also had a favorable outcome with low-intensity and intermediate-intensity chemotherapy, with 94% EFS and 100% overall survival (OS) with a 2-year median follow-up.[7]

Marginal Zone Lymphoma

Marginal zone lymphoma is a type of indolent lymphoma that is rare in pediatric patients. Marginal zone lymphoma can present as nodal or extranodal disease and almost always as low-stage (stage I or stage II) disease. It is unclear whether the marginal zone lymphoma that is observed in pediatric patients is clinicopathologically different from the disease that is observed in adults. Most extranodal marginal zone lymphoma in pediatrics presents as mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) lymphoma and may be associated with Helicobacter pylori (gastrointestinal) or Chlamydophila psittaci (conjunctival), previously called chlamydial psittaci.[11,12]

Treatment options for marginal zone lymphoma

Treatment options for marginal zone lymphoma include the following:

  1. Surgery only.
  2. Radiation therapy.
  3. Antibiotic therapy, for MALT lymphoma.[12,13]

Most pediatric MALT lymphomas require no more than local therapy involving curative surgery and/or radiation therapy.[11,14] Treatment of MALT lymphoma may also include antibiotic therapy which is considered standard treatment in adults. However, the use of antibiotic therapy in children has not been well studied because there are so few cases.

Intralesional interferon-alpha for conjunctival MALT lymphoma has been described.[15]

Primary Central Nervous System (CNS) Lymphoma

Other types of NHL that may be rare in adults and are exceedingly rare in pediatric patients include primary CNS lymphoma. Because of small numbers of patients, it is difficult to ascertain whether the disease observed in children is the same as the disease observed in adults.

Reports suggest that the outcome of pediatric patients with primary CNS lymphoma (OS, 70%–80%) may be superior to that of adults with primary CNS lymphoma.[16-19]

Most children have diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, although other histologies can be observed.

Treatment options for primary CNS lymphoma

Treatment options for primary CNS lymphoma include the following:

  1. Chemotherapy.

Therapy with high-dose intravenous methotrexate and cytosine arabinoside is the most successful, and intrathecal chemotherapy may be needed only when malignant cells are present in the cerebrospinal fluid.[20]

There is a case report of repeated doses of rituximab, both intravenous and intraventricular, being administered to a 14-year-old boy with refractory primary CNS lymphoma, with an excellent result.[21] This apparently good outcome needs to be confirmed, and similar results have not been observed in adults. It is generally believed that rituximab does not cross the blood-brain barrier.

(Refer to the PDQ summary on Primary CNS Lymphoma Treatment for more information on treatment options for nonacquired immunodeficiency syndrome–related primary CNS lymphoma.)

Peripheral T-cell Lymphoma

Peripheral T-cell lymphoma, excluding anaplastic large cell lymphoma, is rare in children.

Mature T-cell/natural killer (NK)-cell lymphoma or peripheral T-cell lymphoma has a postthymic phenotype (e.g., terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase negative), usually expresses CD4 or CD8, and has rearrangement of T-cell receptor genes, either alpha-beta and/or gamma-delta chains. The most common phenotype observed in children is peripheral T-cell lymphoma–not otherwise specified, although angioimmunoblastic lymphoma, enteropathy-associated lymphoma (associated with celiac disease), subcutaneous panniculitis-like lymphoma, angiocentric lymphoma, and extranodal NK/T-cell peripheral T-cell lymphoma have been reported.[22-25]

A Japanese study described extranodal NK/T-cell lymphoma, nasal type as the most common peripheral T-cell lymphoma subtype among Japanese children (10 of 21 peripheral T-cell lymphoma cases). In adults, extranodal NK/T-cell lymphoma, nasal type is generally Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-positive, and 60% of the cases observed in Japanese children were EBV-positive.[26]

Although very rare, gamma-delta hepatosplenic T-cell lymphoma may be seen in children.[25] This tumor has also been associated with children and adolescents who have Crohn disease and have been treated with immunosuppressive therapy; this lymphoma has been fatal in all cases.[27]

Treatment options for peripheral T-cell lymphoma

Optimal therapy for peripheral T-cell lymphoma is unclear for both pediatric and adult patients.

Treatment options for peripheral T-cell lymphoma include the following:

  1. Chemotherapy.
  2. Radiation therapy.
  3. Allogeneic or autologous stem cell transplantation (SCT).

There have been four retrospective analyses of treatment and outcome for pediatric patients with peripheral T-cell lymphoma. The studies have reported the following:

  • The United Kingdom Children's Cancer Study Group (UKCCSG) reported on 25 children diagnosed over a 20-year period with peripheral T-cell lymphoma, with an approximate 50% 5-year survival rate.[22] The UKCCSG also observed that the use of acute lymphoblastic leukemia–like therapy, instead of NHL therapy, produced a superior outcome.
  • The COG reported 20 patients older than 8 years treated on Pediatric Oncology Group NHL trials.[23] Eight of ten patients with low-stage disease achieved long-term disease-free survival compared with only four of ten patients with high-stage disease.
  • A study of Japanese children with peripheral T-cell lymphoma (N = 21) reported a 5-year OS rate of 85.2%. Treatment for peripheral T-cell lymphoma included chemotherapy (n = 18), radiation (n = 2), and autologous (n = 2) and allogeneic (n = 9) SCT.[26]
  • The Berlin-Frankfurt-Münster study group reported 38 cases of peripheral T-cell lymphoma acquired over a 26-year period.[25][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiii] Patients with peripheral T-cell lymphoma–not otherwise specified (n = 18), most with advanced disease (stage III [n = 10] and stage IV [n = 5]), were usually treated with anaplastic large cell lymphoma protocols and had a 10-year EFS rate of 61%. Patients with NK/T-cell lymphoma (n = 9) did poorly, with a 10-year EFS rate of 17%. This series also included five patients with hepatosplenic T-cell lymphoma and five patients with subcutaneous panniculitis-like T-cell lymphoma.

Cutaneous T-cell Lymphoma

Primary cutaneous lymphomas are very rare in pediatric patients (1 case per 1 million person-years), but the incidence increases in adolescents and young adults. All histologies of NHL have been observed to involve the skin. Over 80% are of T-cell or NK-cell phenotype.[28]

There are very limited data on the best therapeutic approach to the treatment of primary cutaneous lymphoma in the pediatric population. Primary cutaneous anaplastic large cell lymphoma presents a particular problem. The diagnosis can be difficult to distinguish pathologically from more benign diseases such as lymphomatoid papulosis.[29] Primary cutaneous lymphomas are now thought to represent a spectrum of disorders, distinguished by clinical presentation.

Mycosis fungoides is rarely reported in children and adolescents,[30 -32] and it accounts for about 2% of all cases. Patients present with low-stage disease, and it appears that the hypopigmented, CD8-positive variant of mycosis fungoides is more common in children than in adults.[33]

Treatment options for cutaneous T-cell lymphoma

Because of the rarity of cutaneous T-cell lymphoma, no standard treatments have been established.

Primary cutaneous anaplastic large cell lymphoma usually does not express ALK and may be treated successfully with surgical resection and/or local radiation therapy without systemic chemotherapy.[34] There are reports of surgery alone also being curative for ALK-positive cutaneous anaplastic large cell lymphoma, but extensive staging and vigilant follow-up is required.[35,36]

An oral retinoid (bexarotene) has been reported to be active against subcutaneous panniculitis-like T-cell lymphomas and cutaneous gamma-delta T-cell lymphomas in a series of 15 patients from three institutions.[37] In general, however, the optimal therapy for non–anaplastic large cell lymphoma cutaneous T-cell lymphoma in childhood is unclear.

Mycosis fungoides occurring in pediatric patients may respond to various therapies, including topical steroids, retinoids, radiation therapy, or phototherapy (e.g., narrow-band ultraviolet B treatment), but remission may not be durable.[33,38-40]

References

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  2. Louissaint A Jr, Ackerman AM, Dias-Santagata D, et al.: Pediatric-type nodal follicular lymphoma: an indolent clonal proliferation in children and adults with high proliferation index and no BCL2 rearrangement. Blood 120 (12): 2395-404, 2012. [PubMed: 22855608]
  3. Liu Q, Salaverria I, Pittaluga S, et al.: Follicular lymphomas in children and young adults: a comparison of the pediatric variant with usual follicular lymphoma. Am J Surg Pathol 37 (3): 333-43, 2013. [PMC free article: PMC3566339] [PubMed: 23108024]
  4. Lorsbach RB, Shay-Seymore D, Moore J, et al.: Clinicopathologic analysis of follicular lymphoma occurring in children. Blood 99 (6): 1959-64, 2002. [PubMed: 11877266]
  5. Salaverria I, Philipp C, Oschlies I, et al.: Translocations activating IRF4 identify a subtype of germinal center-derived B-cell lymphoma affecting predominantly children and young adults. Blood 118 (1): 139-47, 2011. [PubMed: 21487109]
  6. Launay E, Pangault C, Bertrand P, et al.: High rate of TNFRSF14 gene alterations related to 1p36 region in de novo follicular lymphoma and impact on prognosis. Leukemia 26 (3): 559-62, 2012. [PubMed: 21941365]
  7. Attarbaschi A, Beishuizen A, Mann G, et al.: Children and adolescents with follicular lymphoma have an excellent prognosis with either limited chemotherapy or with a "Watch and wait" strategy after complete resection. Ann Hematol 92 (11): 1537-41, 2013. [PubMed: 23665980]
  8. Oschlies I, Salaverria I, Mahn F, et al.: Pediatric follicular lymphoma--a clinico-pathological study of a population-based series of patients treated within the Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma--Berlin-Frankfurt-Munster (NHL-BFM) multicenter trials. Haematologica 95 (2): 253-9, 2010. [PMC free article: PMC2817028] [PubMed: 19679882]
  9. Lones MA, Raphael M, McCarthy K, et al.: Primary follicular lymphoma of the testis in children and adolescents. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 34 (1): 68-71, 2012. [PMC free article: PMC3251817] [PubMed: 22215099]
  10. Agrawal R, Wang J: Pediatric follicular lymphoma: a rare clinicopathologic entity. Arch Pathol Lab Med 133 (1): 142-6, 2009. [PubMed: 19123728]
  11. Claviez A, Meyer U, Dominick C, et al.: MALT lymphoma in children: a report from the NHL-BFM Study Group. Pediatr Blood Cancer 47 (2): 210-4, 2006. [PubMed: 16123999]
  12. Stefanovic A, Lossos IS: Extranodal marginal zone lymphoma of the ocular adnexa. Blood 114 (3): 501-10, 2009. [PMC free article: PMC2713468] [PubMed: 19372259]
  13. Fischbach W, Goebeler-Kolve ME, Dragosics B, et al.: Long term outcome of patients with gastric marginal zone B cell lymphoma of mucosa associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) following exclusive Helicobacter pylori eradication therapy: experience from a large prospective series. Gut 53 (1): 34-7, 2004. [PMC free article: PMC1773912] [PubMed: 14684573]
  14. Kempf W, Kazakov DV, Buechner SA, et al.: Primary cutaneous marginal zone lymphoma in children: a report of 3 cases and review of the literature. Am J Dermatopathol 36 (8): 661-6, 2014. [PubMed: 24698939]
  15. Holds J, Buchanan A, Hanson R: Intralesional interferon-α for the treatment of bilateral conjunctival mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma. Pediatr Blood Cancer 59 (1): 176-8, 2012. [PubMed: 21793177]
  16. Abla O, Sandlund JT, Sung L, et al.: A case series of pediatric primary central nervous system lymphoma: favorable outcome without cranial irradiation. Pediatr Blood Cancer 47 (7): 880-5, 2006. [PubMed: 16365864]
  17. Shah AC, Kelly DR, Nabors LB, et al.: Treatment of primary CNS lymphoma with high-dose methotrexate in immunocompetent pediatric patients. Pediatr Blood Cancer 55 (6): 1227-30, 2010. [PubMed: 20882580]
  18. Yoon JH, Kang HJ, Kim H, et al.: Successful treatment of primary central nervous system lymphoma without irradiation in children: single center experience. J Korean Med Sci 27 (11): 1378-84, 2012. [PMC free article: PMC3492674] [PubMed: 23166421]
  19. Thorer H, Zimmermann M, Makarova O, et al.: Primary central nervous system lymphoma in children and adolescents: low relapse rate after treatment according to Non-Hodgkin-Lymphoma Berlin-Frankfurt-Münster protocols for systemic lymphoma. Haematologica 99 (11): e238-41, 2014. [PMC free article: PMC4222469] [PubMed: 25107886]
  20. Abla O, Weitzman S, Blay JY, et al.: Primary CNS lymphoma in children and adolescents: a descriptive analysis from the International Primary CNS Lymphoma Collaborative Group (IPCG). Clin Cancer Res 17 (2): 346-52, 2011. [PMC free article: PMC4058714] [PubMed: 21224370]
  21. Akyuz C, Aydin GB, Cila A, et al.: Successful use of intraventricular and intravenous rituximab therapy for refractory primary CNS lymphoma in a child. Leuk Lymphoma 48 (6): 1253-5, 2007. [PubMed: 17577799]
  22. Windsor R, Stiller C, Webb D: Peripheral T-cell lymphoma in childhood: population-based experience in the United Kingdom over 20 years. Pediatr Blood Cancer 50 (4): 784-7, 2008. [PubMed: 18022899]
  23. Hutchison RE, Laver JH, Chang M, et al.: Non-anaplastic peripheral t-cell lymphoma in childhood and adolescence: a Children's Oncology Group study. Pediatr Blood Cancer 51 (1): 29-33, 2008. [PMC free article: PMC4447625] [PubMed: 18300314]
  24. Wang ZY, Li YX, Wang WH, et al.: Primary radiotherapy showed favorable outcome in treating extranodal nasal-type NK/T-cell lymphoma in children and adolescents. Blood 114 (23): 4771-6, 2009. [PubMed: 19812381]
  25. Kontny U, Oschlies I, Woessmann W, et al.: Non-anaplastic peripheral T-cell lymphoma in children and adolescents--a retrospective analysis of the NHL-BFM study group. Br J Haematol 168 (6): 835-44, 2015. [PubMed: 25395120]
  26. Kobayashi R, Yamato K, Tanaka F, et al.: Retrospective analysis of non-anaplastic peripheral T-cell lymphoma in pediatric patients in Japan. Pediatr Blood Cancer 54 (2): 212-5, 2010. [PubMed: 19856396]
  27. Rosh JR, Gross T, Mamula P, et al.: Hepatosplenic T-cell lymphoma in adolescents and young adults with Crohn's disease: a cautionary tale? Inflamm Bowel Dis 13 (8): 1024-30, 2007. [PubMed: 17480018]
  28. Senerchia AA, Ribeiro KB, Rodriguez-Galindo C: Trends in incidence of primary cutaneous malignancies in children, adolescents, and young adults: a population-based study. Pediatr Blood Cancer 61 (2): 211-6, 2014. [PubMed: 24174376]
  29. Kumar S, Pittaluga S, Raffeld M, et al.: Primary cutaneous CD30-positive anaplastic large cell lymphoma in childhood: report of 4 cases and review of the literature. Pediatr Dev Pathol 8 (1): 52-60, 2005 Jan-Feb. [PubMed: 15719203]
  30. Kim ST, Sim HJ, Jeon YS, et al.: Clinicopathological features and T-cell receptor gene rearrangement findings of mycosis fungoides in patients younger than age 20 years. J Dermatol 36 (7): 392-402, 2009. [PubMed: 19583687]
  31. Hodak E, Amitay-Laish I, Feinmesser M, et al.: Juvenile mycosis fungoides: cutaneous T-cell lymphoma with frequent follicular involvement. J Am Acad Dermatol 70 (6): 993-1001, 2014. [PubMed: 24629999]
  32. Castano E, Glick S, Wolgast L, et al.: Hypopigmented mycosis fungoides in childhood and adolescence: a long-term retrospective study. J Cutan Pathol 40 (11): 924-34, 2013. [PubMed: 24320808]
  33. Boulos S, Vaid R, Aladily TN, et al.: Clinical presentation, immunopathology, and treatment of juvenile-onset mycosis fungoides: a case series of 34 patients. J Am Acad Dermatol 71 (6): 1117-26, 2014. [PubMed: 25264240]
  34. Kempf W, Pfaltz K, Vermeer MH, et al.: EORTC, ISCL, and USCLC consensus recommendations for the treatment of primary cutaneous CD30-positive lymphoproliferative disorders: lymphomatoid papulosis and primary cutaneous anaplastic large-cell lymphoma. Blood 118 (15): 4024-35, 2011. [PMC free article: PMC3204726] [PubMed: 21841159]
  35. Hinshaw M, Trowers AB, Kodish E, et al.: Three children with CD30 cutaneous anaplastic large cell lymphomas bearing the t(2;5)(p23;q35) translocation. Pediatr Dermatol 21 (3): 212-7, 2004 May-Jun. [PubMed: 15165197]
  36. Oschlies I, Lisfeld J, Lamant L, et al.: ALK-positive anaplastic large cell lymphoma limited to the skin: clinical, histopathological and molecular analysis of 6 pediatric cases. A report from the ALCL99 study. Haematologica 98 (1): 50-6, 2013. [PMC free article: PMC3533659] [PubMed: 22773605]
  37. Mehta N, Wayne AS, Kim YH, et al.: Bexarotene is active against subcutaneous panniculitis-like T-cell lymphoma in adult and pediatric populations. Clin Lymphoma Myeloma Leuk 12 (1): 20-5, 2012. [PMC free article: PMC3938280] [PubMed: 22001256]
  38. Koh MJ, Chong WS: Narrow-band ultraviolet B phototherapy for mycosis fungoides in children. Clin Exp Dermatol 39 (4): 474-8, 2014. [PubMed: 24825139]
  39. Laws PM, Shear NH, Pope E: Childhood mycosis fungoides: experience of 28 patients and response to phototherapy. Pediatr Dermatol 31 (4): 459-64, 2014 Jul-Aug. [PubMed: 24916067]
  40. Heng YK, Koh MJ, Giam YC, et al.: Pediatric mycosis fungoides in Singapore: a series of 46 children. Pediatr Dermatol 31 (4): 477-82, 2014 Jul-Aug. [PubMed: 24890628]

Changes to This Summary (03/30/2016)

The PDQ cancer information summaries are reviewed regularly and updated as new information becomes available. This section describes the latest changes made to this summary as of the date above.

Editorial changes were made to this summary.

This summary is written and maintained by the PDQ Pediatric Treatment Editorial Board, which is editorially independent of NCI. The summary reflects an independent review of the literature and does not represent a policy statement of NCI or NIH. More information about summary policies and the role of the PDQ Editorial Boards in maintaining the PDQ summaries can be found on the About This PDQ Summary and PDQ® - NCI's Comprehensive Cancer Database pages.

About This PDQ Summary

Purpose of This Summary

This PDQ cancer information summary for health professionals provides comprehensive, peer-reviewed, evidence-based information about the treatment of childhood non-Hodgkin lymphoma. It is intended as a resource to inform and assist clinicians who care for cancer patients. It does not provide formal guidelines or recommendations for making health care decisions.

Reviewers and Updates

This summary is reviewed regularly and updated as necessary by the PDQ Pediatric Treatment Editorial Board, which is editorially independent of the National Cancer Institute (NCI). The summary reflects an independent review of the literature and does not represent a policy statement of NCI or the National Institutes of Health (NIH).

Board members review recently published articles each month to determine whether an article should:

  • be discussed at a meeting,
  • be cited with text, or
  • replace or update an existing article that is already cited.

Changes to the summaries are made through a consensus process in which Board members evaluate the strength of the evidence in the published articles and determine how the article should be included in the summary.

The lead reviewers for Childhood Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment are:

  • Louis S. Constine, MD (James P. Wilmot Cancer Center at University of Rochester Medical Center)
  • Alan Scott Gamis, MD, MPH (Children's Mercy Hospital)
  • Thomas G. Gross, MD, PhD (National Cancer Institute)
  • Kenneth L. McClain, MD, PhD (Texas Children's Cancer Center and Hematology Service at Texas Children's Hospital)
  • Arthur Kim Ritchey, MD (Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh of UPMC)
  • Nita Louise Seibel, MD (National Cancer Institute)
  • Malcolm A. Smith, MD, PhD (National Cancer Institute)

Any comments or questions about the summary content should be submitted to Cancer.gov through the NCI website's Email Us. Do not contact the individual Board Members with questions or comments about the summaries. Board members will not respond to individual inquiries.

Levels of Evidence

Some of the reference citations in this summary are accompanied by a level-of-evidence designation. These designations are intended to help readers assess the strength of the evidence supporting the use of specific interventions or approaches. The PDQ Pediatric Treatment Editorial Board uses a formal evidence ranking system in developing its level-of-evidence designations.

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PDQ® Pediatric Treatment Editorial Board. PDQ Childhood Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. Updated <MM/DD/YYYY>. Available at: http://www.cancer.gov/types/lymphoma/hp/child-nhl-treatment-pdq. Accessed <MM/DD/YYYY>. [PMID: 26389181]

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