Results: Design, Arm, and Sample Details

Ian J. Saldanha; Gaelen P. Adam; Ghid Kanaan; Michael L. Zahradnik; Dale W. Steele; Valery A. Danilack; Alex Friedman Peahl; Kenneth K. Chen; Alison M. Stuebe; Ethan M. Balk

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Saldanha IJ, Adam GP, Kanaan G, et al. Postpartum Care up to 1 Year After Pregnancy: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis [Internet]. Rockville (MD): Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (US); 2023 Jun. (Comparative Effectiveness Review, No. 261.)

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Postpartum Care up to 1 Year After Pregnancy: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis [Internet].

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Appendix CResults: Design, Arm, and Sample Details

C.1. Results of Literature Searches

As illustrated by Figure C-1, our electronic search retrieved a combined 25,973 unique citations. Of these, 589 were deemed potentially relevant and retrieved in full text. After full-text screening, we identified 92 eligible studies that were reported in 109 articles.

This figure shows the literature flow of the citations related to studies included in the review. The searches from electronic databases (Medline, Embase, Cochrane CENTRAL, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, CINAHL, and ClinicalTrials.gov) retrieved 25,973 records. Of these, 25,428 were excluded in abstract screening. An additional 44 were identified through handsearching and other approaches. Of the 589 articles assessed in full text, 480 were excluded for a variety of reasons. These included that the population was too narrow/had ineligible conditions (n=22 articles), there were no interventions of interest (n=79), intervention addressed treatment only (n=5), the delivery strategy or its comparison was not of interest (n=77), there were no outcomes of interest (n=22), it was a nonrandomized comparative study with fewer than 30 participants per group (n=5), it was an randomized controlled trial with fewer than 10 participants per group (n=1), it was a single-group study (n=12), it was a systematic review on an irrelevant topic (n=32), it was a systematic review on a relevant topic (n=25), it was a narrative review/commentary/letter with no original data (n=4), it addressed Key Question 1 but was a cross-sectional study (n=4), it was not conducted in a high-income country (n=15), it addressed Key Question 1 but was not conducted in the U.S. or Canada (n=87), it was an ongoing/completed study with no results (n=40), it was a duplicate of another article (n=44), or we were unable to retrieve the article (n=6). Ultimately, we included 92 primary studies (in 109 articles).

Figure C-1Flow diagram for studies

Abbreviations: CINAHL = Cumulative Index of the Nursing and Allied Health Literature, NRCS = nonrandomized comparative

C.2. Description of Included Studies

C.2.1. Overall Summary of Study Characteristics

The 92 included studies (reported in 109 articles¹^–⁸⁴) were published between 1990 and 2022.

The studies enrolled a total of 3,967,261 participants. The 92 studies comprised 50 randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and 25 nonrandomized comparative studies (NRCSs; observational cohort studies). The 50 RCTs enrolled 477,954 participants, and the 42 NRCSs enrolled 3,489,307 participants.

Tables C-1 to C-2.2 summarize the design, arm, and baseline details of all 92 studies. Tables C-1.1 to C-1.3 address KQ 1 and Tables C-2.1 and C-2.2 address KQ 2. Eighty-three (90%) were conducted in the United States and 9 (10%) were conducted in Canada. All 9 Canadian studies addressed KQ 1 (we restricted KQ 2 to U.S.-based studies).

C.2.2. Summary of Patient Characteristics

When reported, average patient ages ranged from 17 to 34 years. When reported, average BMIs ranged from 27 to 41 kg/m². Study participants were diverse racially; between 3 and 96 percent were White and between 2 and 89 percent were Black. Three studies selectively enrolled Black individuals and one selectively enrolled Hispanic (or Latinx) individuals.

In one study, all participants were employed; among the other studies that reported data, between 15 and 85 percent of participants were employed. No study reported on participant gender or sexual identity status. Only two studies reported on substance use disorders; 2% and 9% of participants had substance use disorders. Where reported, between 57 and 88 percent of deliveries were vaginal and between 8 and 22 percent of deliveries were preterm. Twenty-three studies explicitly reported excluding postpartum individuals with deliveries that had resulted in stillbirths, spontaneous or induced abortions, or neonatal deaths.

C.3. Risk of Bias Assessments

Tables D-1.1 to D-2.2 summarize the risk of bias assessment of all 92 studies. Tables D-1.1 to D-1.3 address KQ 1 and Tables D-2.1 and D-2.2 address KQ 2. Tables D-1 to D-4 summarize the 92 studies. Among the 50 RCTs, we rated five at low risk of bias, 25 at moderate risk, and 20 at high risk. Moderate and high-risk ratings were generally related to the lack of blinding of participants, care providers, and outcome assessors, and incomplete outcome data. Among the 42 NRCSs, we rated 28 at moderate risk of bias and 14 at high risk. Moderate ratings were related to moderate or serious risk of confounding and the lack of blinding of participants, care providers, and outcome assessors.

Table C-1.1Key Question 1: Healthcare delivery strategies – summary of design details

Delivery Strategy Compared	Target of Intervention	Study, Publication Year, PMID, Country	Design, Direction if NRCS, (Funding) (Study Years)	Registration Number	Overall RoB	Inclusion Criteria	Exclusion Criteria	Study N
Where	Breastfeeding care	Lieu, 2000, 10790463, US	RCT, (Non-industry) (1996–1997)	NR	Moderate	Overall pregnant population Low medical risk	NR	1163
Where	Breastfeeding care	Gagnon, 2002, 12042545, Canada	RCT, (NR) (NR)	NR	Moderate	Gestational age ≥37 wk Overall pregnant population Breastfed at least once in hospital	Caesarean delivery, parity ≥5, multiple gestation, birth weight <2500g	586
Where	General PP care	Norr, 2003, 12716399, US	RCT, (Non-industry) (NR)	NR	Moderate	Low-income African American or Mexican American Medicaid or state supplemental health insurance, neighborhood with high infant mortality, medically low risk, no current drug use	Current drug use	477
Where	Breastfeeding care	Escobar, 2001, 11533342, US	RCT, (Non-industry) (1998–1999)	NR	High	Gestational age 36–42 wk Overall pregnant population Low medical and social risk	Infant weight 2500–4600g/NICU admission Newborn hematocrit <40 or neutrophil <7000 Anticipated stay >48 hours Age ≤14 Age 15 to 17 without parent or a guardian Positive toxicology screen for drugs of abuse after admission to labor	1014
Where	General PP care	Steel O’Connor, 2003, 12675164, Canada	RCT, (Non-industry) (1997–1999)	NR	High	Primiparas, singleton infant, vaginal delivery	NR	733
Where	General PP care	McCarter, 2019, 31222789, US	RCT, (NR) (20172019)	NR	High	Age ≥18 English-speaking	NR	357
Where	Breastfeeding care	Paul, 2012, 22064874, US	RCT, (Non-industry) (2006–2010)	NCT00360204	High	singleton or twins born ≥34 wk gestation	≥2night stay post vaginal delivery, ≥4night stay post Caesarean, atypical complications in hospital, newborn hyperbilirubinemia, major morbidities, and/or preexisting conditions	1154
Where	General PP care	Arias, 2022, 35331971, US	NRCS, Retrospective, (Non-industry) (2019–2019)	NR	Moderate	PP visit scheduled at institution March-June 2019	NR	1579
Where, Who	General PP care	Dodge, 2019, 31675088, US	RCT, (Non-industry) (2014–2014)	NCT01843036	Moderate	Overall postpartum population	Residence outside of Durham County Previously enrolled patient	316
Where, Who	Breastfeeding care	Pugh, 2002, 12000411, US	RCT, (Non-industry) (1999–2000)	NR	Moderate	Low-income women receiving financial medical assistance support	NR	41
Where, Who	General PP care	Mersky, 2021, 33078655, US	RCT, (Not funded) (NR)	NR	High	Low-income	NR	237
Where, Who	Breastfeeding care	Pugh, 2010, 19854119, US	RCT, (Non-industry) (NR)	NR	High	Gestational age >37 wk Eligible for WIC Caesarean	Infant craniofacial abnormality, NICU admission, positive drug screen for mother/infant	328
Where, Who	Breastfeeding care	Edwards, 2013, 24187119, US	RCT, (Non-industry) (2001–2004)	NCT01925664	High	Age ≤21 Gestational age ≤34 wk Low-income	NR	248
Where, Who	Breastfeeding care	Gill, 2007, 17557933, US	NRCS, Prospective, (Non-industry) (NR)	NR	High	Gestational age 2^nd trimester Low-income Hispanic	Premature birth, low-birth weight, major congenital anomalies, NICU admission	158
How	General PP care	Polk, 2021, 34671758, US	RCT, (Non-industry) (2015–2016)	NR	Moderate	Age >18 Low-income	NICU admission	116
How	General PP care	Koniak-Griffin, 2003, 12657988, US	RCT, (Non-industry) (NR)	NR	Moderate	Age 14–19 Gestational age ≤26 wk Single, poor, underrepresented ethnicity	Dependent on narcotic or IV drugs, serious OB/medical condition	101
How, Who	General PP care	Hans, 2018, 29855838, US	RCT, (Non-industry) (2011–2015)	NCT01947244	High	Age 14–24 Gestational age 12–34 wk Living in high-poverty communities	NR	312
How	Contraceptive care	Haider, 2020, 31964564, US	RCT, NR, (2015–2017)	NR	Moderate	Infant ≤4.5 months, no previous LARC/sterilization, not currently pregnant	NR	446
How	General PP care	Laliberte, 2016, 26871448, Canada	RCT, (Non-industry) (NR)	NCT02043119	Moderate	Age ≥18 Gestational age ≥36 wk Singleton infant, no medical problems, breastfeeding	Multiple births, preterm infant	428
How	Breastfeeding care	Rozga, 2016, 27423234, US	NRCS, Prospective, (Industry) (2012–2014)	NR	Moderate	≤185% of federal poverty level	NR	698
How	Breastfeeding care	Witt, 2021, 33956505, US	NRCS, Retrospective, (Non-industry) (2016–2019)	NR	Moderate	NR	NR	442
When	General PP care	Bernard, 2018, 29778586, US	RCT, (Industry and non-industry) (2016–2017)	NCT02769676	Moderate	Age 14–45 Gestational age ≥36 wk Overall pregnant population Live birth	Incarcerated, received immediate PP LARC or sterilization	188
When	General PP care	Pluym, 2021, 33785465, US	RCT, (Not funded) (2018–2020)	NCT03733405	Moderate	Age 18–50 Gestational age >35 wk	NR	250
When	General PP care	Chen, 2019, 30414598, US	NRCS, Retrospective, (Non-industry) (2015–2019)	NR	Moderate	Gestational age ≥28 wk Overall pregnant population	NR	512
When	Contraceptive care	Dahlke, 2011, 21843688, US	RCT, (Not funded) (2009–2010)	NCT01088178	Low	Age 16–45 Overall pregnant population	Uterine or cervical neoplasia	46
When	Contraceptive care	Chen, 2010, 20966692, US	RCT, (Non-industry) (2007–2008)	NCT00476021	Moderate	Age ≥18 Gestational age ≥24 wk Overall pregnant population Planned vaginal delivery	Gonorrhea, chlamydia, or trichomoniasis during pregnancy	102
When	Contraceptive care	Levi, 2015, 26241250, US	RCT, (Non-industry) (2012–2014)	NCT01539759	Moderate	Age 18–45 Gestational age ≥24 wk Overall pregnant population Live birth, Caesarean delivery	Gonorrhea or chlamydia, cervical, uterine, or breast neoplasia, chorioamnionitis	112
When	Contraceptive care	Dempsey, 2018, N/A, US	RCT, (Industry and non-industry) (2010–2013)	NCT03585504	Moderate	Age 15–21 Overall pregnant population <5 days PP	Breastfeeding	81
When	Contraceptive care	Baldwin, 2019, N/A, US	RCT, (Non-industry) (2012–2014)	NCT01594476	Moderate	Age 18–50 Gestational age ≥32 wk	Preterm delivery, recent pregnancy with multiple gestation	197
When	Contraceptive care	Whitaker, 2014, 24457061, US	RCT, (Non-industry) (2007–2011)	NCT00635362	High	Age ≥18 Scheduled Caesarean delivery	Current cervical cancer or CIS	42
When	Contraceptive care	Morse, 2016, N/A, US	RCT, (Non-industry) (2013–2015)	NCT01767285	High	Age 12–40	NR	59
When	Contraceptive care	Chen, 2018, N/A, US	RCT, (Non-industry) (2011–2017)	NCT01463202	High	Age ≥18 Gestational age > 24 wk Overall pregnant population Planning to breastfeed, use DMPA for postpartum contraception	Intolerance of irregular vaginal bleeding, coagulation disorder, liver disease, contraindications to breastfeeding, history of breast cancer, reduction or augmentation surgery, history of severe clinical depression, multiple gestation	157
When	Contraceptive care	Jensen, 2019, N/A, US	RCT, (Non-industry) (2014–2017)	NCT02169869	High	Age 18–55 Gestational age ≥32 wk Overall pregnant population Singleton pregnancy	NR	33
Who	General PP care	Kozhimannil, 2013, 23837663, US	NRCS, Retrospective, (Non-industry) (NR)	NR	Moderate	Medicaid coverage for childbirth Singleton, live birth	NR	52790
Who	General PP care	Pan, 2020, 32437282, US	NRCS, Prospective, (NR) (2015–2017)	NR	Moderate	Social and economic risk factors	NR	455
Who	General PP care	Edwards, 1997, 9170692, Canada	RCT, (Non-industry) (NR)	NR	Low	Gestational age ≥35 wk Overall pregnant population Primiparous, singleton birth, no congenital anomalies	NR	788
Who	Breastfeeding care	Falconi, 2022, 35812994, US	NRCS, Retrospective, (Not funded) (2014–2020)	NR	High	Age 12−51 High risk for adverse maternal health outcomes At least one ICD-9 or ICD-10 claim Medicaid eligibility	NR	596
Who	General PP care	Buckley, 1990, 2328162, US	NRCS, Prospective, (NR) (NR)	NR	High	NR	NR	59
Who	General PP care, screening/ preventive education	Tandon, 2021, 33655429, US	RCT, (Non-industry) (2017–2019)	NCT02979444	High	Age ≥16 Gestational age ≤33 wk	NR	824
Who	Contraceptive care	Simmons, 2013, 23218851, US	RCT, (Non-industry) (2011–2012)	NR	Low	Age 18–38 Medicaid insurance, English or Spanish speaking, intention to use LARC	Incarcerated at time of delivery	49
Who	Breastfeeding care	Dennis, 2002, 11800243, Canada	RCT, (Non-industry) (1997–1998)	NR	Low	Age ≥16 Gestational age ≥37 wk Primiparous, breastfeeding	Serious illness, infant congenital abnormality, NICU admission	256
Who	Breastfeeding care	Reeder, 2014, 25092936, US	RCT, (Non-industry) (2005–2007)	NCT02120248	Low	Low-income women/WIC participants	NR	1885
Who, IT	Breastfeeding care	Gross, 1998, 12515413, US	RCT, (Non-industry) (1992–1994)	NR	Moderate	Gestational age <24 wk WIC eligible Singleton pregnancy	Breastfeeding contraindicated	115
Who	Breastfeeding care	Anderson, 2005, 16143742, US	RCT, (Non-industry) (2003–2004)	NR	Moderate	Age ≥18 Gestational age ≤32 wk Low-income Term delivery	Diabetes, hypertension, HIV/AIDS, using illegal drugs	135
Who	Breastfeeding care	Chapman, 2004, 15351756, US	RCT, (Non-industry) (2000–2003)	NR	High	Age ≥18 Gestational age ≤26 wk Low-income Healthy, full-term singleton infants	HIV, infant congenital anomalies	165
Who	Breastfeeding care	Wambach, 2011, 20876551, US	RCT, (Non-industry) (2003–2007)	NR	High	Age 15–18 Gestational age 2nd trimester Pregnant with first child, planning to keep newborn, Englishspeaking, phone access	Multiple-gestation, preterm labor, infant cleft lip/palate, heart defect, Down’s syndrome, neural tube defects, NICU admission	390
Who	Breastfeeding care	Chapman, 2013, 23209111, US	RCT, (Non-industry) (2006–2009)	NCT01338727	High	Age ≥18 Gestational age ≤36 wk Income ≤185% federal poverty level Pre-pregnancy BMI ≥27.0 Breastfeeding, singleton pregnancy, no conditions interfering with breastfeeding	NR	154
Who	Breastfeeding care	Srinivas, 2015, 25193602, US	RCT, (Non-industry) (2011–2012)	NR	High	Age ≥18 Gestational age ≥28 wk	Non-English, contraindication to breastfeeding	103
Who, IT	Breastfeeding care, screening/preventive education	Kerver, 2019, N/A, US	RCT, (Non-industry) (2017–2018)	NCT03480048	High	Age 18–55 With obesity African American	High-risk pregnancy	53
Who	Breastfeeding care	Porteous, 2000, 11155608, Canada	RCT, (Non-industry) (NR)	NR	Moderate	Overall pregnant population Singleton pregnancy, vaginal delivery	NR	51
Who	Breastfeeding care	Rasmussen, 2011, 20958105, US	RCT, (Non-industry) (2006–2007)	NR	Moderate	Age ≥19 Gestational age ≤35 wk With obesity Singleton pregnancy	NR	40
Who, Provider Interventio ns	Breastfeeding care	Bonuck, 2014a, 24354834, US	RCT, (Non-industry) (2008–2013)	NCT00619632	Moderate	Age ≥18 Gestational age 1st or 2nd trimester Overall pregnant population	High risk of prematurity/NICU, use of illicit drugs	628
Who, Provider Interventio ns	Breastfeeding care	Bonuck, 2014b, 24354834, US	RCT, (Non-industry) (2008–2013)	NCT00643253	Moderate	Age ≥18 Gestational age 12–30 wk Overall pregnant population	Multiple gestation	262
Who, IT	Breastfeeding care	Uscher-Pines, 2020, 31629118, US	RCT, (Non-industry) (2016–2018)	NCT02870413	High	Age 18–46 Gestational age ≥35 wk Singleton birth, initiated breastfeeding	Infant cardiac defect, infant ventilator dependence, NICU admission, HIV+	187
Coordination/management	General PP care	Rutledge, 2016, 27350389, US	NRCS, Retrospective, (NR) (2008–2010)	NR	Moderate	Medicaid eligibility	Not eligible for Medicaid	7120
Coordination/management	General PP care	Tsai, 2011, 21365543, US	NRCS, Retrospective, (NR) (2006–2008)	NR	High	Overall pregnant population	NR	221
Coordination/management	Screening	Mendez-Figueroa, 2014, 24481876, US	NRCS, Retrospective, (Non-industry) (2011–2012)	NR	High	Gestational diabetes	NR	388
Coordination/management, Provider Interventio ns	Screening	Clark, 2009, 19268878, Canada	RCT, (Non-industry) (2002–2005)	NCT00212914	Moderate	Gestational diabetes Attended High-Risk Obstetrical Unit	No family physician Family physician had other patient(s) enrolled Previously enrolled patient Delivered outside of Ottawa Hospital Stillbirth	223
Coordination/management, IT	Screening	Shea, 2011, 21466755, Canada	NRCS, Prospective, (Non-industry) (2007–2008)	NR	Moderate	Gestational diabetes	NR	262
IT	Breastfeeding care	Martinez-Brockman, 2018, 29325660, US	RCT, (Non-industry) (2014–2016)	NCT02214849	Moderate	Age ≥18 Gestational age ≤28 wk Low-income women in WIC BFPC program Singleton, intention to breastfeed	Withdrawal from BFPC program, multiple gestation, premature birth, history of miscarriage, medication given to mother or baby prior to BF, >3d NICU infant weight <5 lb	174
IT	Breastfeeding care	Abbass-Dick, 2020, 32739716, Canada	RCT, (Non-industry) (2018–2020)	NCT03492411	Moderate	Age ≥18 Gestational age >25 wk Overall pregnant population Primiparous, not previously breastfed, singleton birth	NR	217
IT	Breastfeeding care	Bender, 2022, 36201773, US	RCT, (NR), (2020–2021)	NCT04108533	Moderate	Age ≥18 Gestational age 34–36 wk English-speaking Singleton gestation	Contraindication to breastfeeding Preterm delivery or NICU admission	216
IT	Breastfeeding care	Ahmed, 2016, 26779838, US	RCT, (Non-industry) (NR)	NR	High	Age ≥18 Gestational age ≥37 wk	HIV	106
Provider Interventions	Screening	Domingo, 2022, 35237835, US	NRCS, Retrospective, (NR), (2016–2020)	NR	Moderate	Gestational diabetes	History of pregestational diabetes	246

Table C-1.2Key Question 1: Healthcare delivery strategies – summary of arm details

Delivery Strategy Compared	Study, Publication Year, PMID	Target	Location	Facility Volume, Type, Academic Status, Level (Only if Reported)	Arm N	Arm Name	Delivery Strategy: Where, How, Who, Coordination, IT (as Relevant)	Delivery Strategy: When: AP, In Hosp, After Discharge (as Relevant)
Where	Lieu, 2000, 10790463	BF care	NR	NR	580	Home visit by nurse on day 3 or 4 PP	Where: Home How: Home visit Who: Nurse	After discharge: 1 time; 1–1.5 hr; day 3 or 4
Where	.	.	.	.	583	Pediatric clinic visit on day 3 or 4 PP	Where: Clinic, How: As part of well-child visit, Who: Pediatrician, nurse practitioner	After discharge: 1 time; 20 min; day 3 or 4
Where	Gagnon, 2002, 12042545	BF care	Urban	NR	292	Home visit by community nurse	Where: Home How: Dedicated PP visit Who: Nurse	In hosp: 1 time; 2 d After discharge: 1 time; 1 hr; 3–4 d after discharge
Where	.	.	.	.	294	Hospital visit with nurse	Where: Hospital How: Dedicated PP visit Who: Nurse	In hosp: 1 time; 2 d After discharge: 1 time; 1 hr; 3–4 d after discharge
Where	Norr, 2003, 12716399	General PP care	Urban	Academic, community	258	Home visits by nurse-led community worker team	Where: Clinic, Home How: Dedicated PP visit, as part of well-child visit, home visit Who: Nurse, community health worker	After discharge: 12 times; monthly
Where	.	.	.	.	219	Routine PP and well-baby visits with current provider	Where: Clinic How: Dedicated PP visit, as part of well-child visit, Who: Pediatrician, provider of mother’s choice	After discharge: 1 time; PP visit
Where	Escobar, 2001, 11533342	BF care	Urban	NR	506	Home visit by nurse on day 3 or 4 PP	Where: Home How: Dedicated newborn and BF visit Who: Nurse	After discharge: 1 time; 1–1.5 hr; day 3 or 4 PP
Where	.	.	.	.	508	Hospital visit on day 3 or 4 PP	Where: Hospital, How: Dedicated newborn and BF visit Who: Nurse	After discharge: 1 time; 1.5–2 hr; day 3 or 4 PP
Where	Steel O’Connor, 2003, 12675164	General PP care	Urban	Tertiary	380	Telephone visit by public health nurse	Where: Telehealth/e-Health How: Telehealth/virtual visit Who: Nurse IT: Phone visits	After discharge: 1 time; 1st working d post-discharge
Where	.	.	.	.	353	Home visit by public health nurse	Where: Home How: Home visit Who: Nurse	After discharge: 2 times; 1st working d post-discharge & ≤10 d post-discharge
Where	McCarter, 2019, 31222789	General PP care	Urban	Community/Pri mary	190	Telephone-based nursing care	Where: Telehealth/e-Health How: Telehealth/virtual visit Who: Nurse IT: Phone visits, Smartphone or computer applications	AP: N/A In Hospital: N/A, After Discharge: Total 104 times, 4x/wk for 26 wks.
Where	.	.	.	.	167	Usual care	Where: Telehealth/e-Health How: Telehealth/virtual visit Who: Nurse IT: Phone visits	AP: In Hospital: After Discharge: One time within PP 2 wks
Where	Paul, 2012, 22064874	BF care	NR	NR	576	First PP visit at home	Where: Home How: Home newborn and BF visit Who: Nurse	After discharge: 1 time; 3–5 d after delivery
Where	.	.	.	.	578	First PP visit in clinic	Where: Clinic How: Dedicated newborn and BF visit Who: OB/GYN	After discharge: 1 time; 3–5 d after delivery
Where	Arias, 2022, 35331971	General PP care	Urban	Academic	799	Virtual visits	Where: Telehealth/e-Health How: Telehealth/virtual visit Who: Obstetrics provider through telehealth. IT: Bidirectional telemedicine/virtual tele-visits	AP: N/A In Hospital: N/A After Discharge: N/A
Where	.	.	.	.	780	In-person visits	Where; Hospital How: Dedicated PP visit Who: obstetrics provider IT: Primarily in-person	AP: N/A, In Hospital: N/A, After Discharge: N/A
Where, Who	Dodge, 2019, 31675088	General PP care	Urban	Academic	158	Nurse home visitation through Family Connects (FC) Program	Where: Home How: Home visit Who: Nurse, Community Agency-Administered Nurse. Coordination: Child preventive service and family support IT: Primarily in-person	AP: N/A In Hospital: In-hospital support After Discharge: 1–3 home visits
Where, Who	.	.	.	.	158	Usual care	Where: NR How: NR Who: NR Coordination: NR IT: NR	AP: NR In Hospital: NR After Discharge: NR
Where, Who	Pugh, 2002, 12000411	Breastfeeding care	NR	High large, Academic	21	Home visits by peer counselors	Where: Hospital, Home, Telehealth/e-Health, How: Home visit, Telehealth/virtual visit Who: Nurse, peer counselor IT: Phone visits	AP: N/A In Hospital: N/A After Discharge: at least 3 times for 6 months, week 1, 2, 4, and at teams discretion.
Where, Who	.	.	.	.	20	Usual care	Where: Hospital How: N/A Who: Nurse IT: N/A	AP: NR In Hospital: 1 time After Discharge: NR
Where, Who	Mersky, 2021, 33078655	General PP care	Urban	N/A	72	Home visits by human service professions through the Healthy Families American Program	Where: Home How: Home visit Who: Human service professionals	After discharge: 24 times; 1 hr; 6 mo; wkly
	.	.	.	.	65	Home visits by public health nurses through the Prenatal Care and Coordination Program	Where: Home How: Home visit Who: Nurse	After discharge: 4 times; 1 hr; 2 mo; bi-wkly
	.	.	.	.	100	No home visits	N/A	N/A
Where, Who	Pugh, 2010, 19854119	BF care	Urban	Public	168	BF support team inpatient and home visits and pager access	Where: Hospital, home, telehealth/e-health How: Dedicated PP visit, home visit, telehealth/virtual visit Who: Nurse, peer IT: Primarily in-person, phone visits	In hosp: unlimited After discharge: 3 home (45–60 min each; 2 within 1 wk and third at 4 wk), 12 phone (20 min each; biwkly)
Where, Who	.	.	.	.	160	Inpatient visits by lactation consultant and home telephone access	Where: Hospital, Telehealth/e-Health, How: Dedicated PP visit, Telehealth/virtual visit, Who: Lactation consultant IT: Primarily in-person, phone visits	In hosp: unlimited After discharge: unlimited
Where, Who	Edwards, 2013, 24187119	BF care	Urban	Community/	124	Home visits by doulas	Where: Clinic, home How: Home visit Who: Doula	AP: 10 times; 3^rd trimester; wkly In hosp: 1 time After discharge: 12 times; 3 mo; wkly
Where, Who	.	.	.	.	124	Standard care without home visits by doulas	Where: Clinic How: Dedicated PP visit	NR
Where, Who	Gill, 2007, 17557933	BF care	Urban	Low-volume, academic	79	Telephone calls from research team and as needed lactation consultant home visits	Where: Clinic, Home, Telephone How: Dedicated PP visit, Telephone Who: Lactation consultant, research staff IT: Primarily in-person, Telephone	AP: 2 times In hosp: NR After discharge: 9 calls; 4 d, 2 wk, 3 wk, 4 wk, 6 wk, 3 mo, 4 mo, 5 mo, 6 mo
Where, Who	.	.	.	.	79	Standard BF education in clinic and/or WIC site	Where: Clinic, WIC Program office/site, How: Dedicated PP visit, WIC site, Who: Research staff	NR
How	Polk, 2021, 34671758	General PP care	Urban	Tertiary	58	Combined PP/well-child visit at 4 wk	Where: Clinic How: As part of well-child visit Who: OB/GYN, pediatrician	After discharge: 1 time; 4 wk
How	.	.	.	.	58	Separate PP and well-child visits	Where: Clinic How: Dedicated PP visit Who: OB/GYN	After discharge: 1 time
How	Koniak-Griffin, 2003, 12657988	General PP care	NR	Academic, tertiary	56	Early Intervention Program	Where: Home, telephone How: Home visit Who: Public health nurse	AP: 2 times; 1.5–2 hr In hosp: NR After discharge: 15 times; 1.5–2 hr; wk 1, 4, 6 & mo 2–12
How	.	.	.	.	45	Traditional Public Health Nursing Care	Where: Home, telephone How: Home visit Who: Public health nurse	AP: 2 times In hosp: NR After discharge: 1 time
How, Who	Hans, 2018, 29855838	General PP care	Urban	NR	156	Home visits by doulas and hospital support for childbirth preparation and childbirth	Where: Hospital, home How: Home visit, hospital Who: Doula, lay support worker	AP: weekly In hosp: NR After discharge: weekly
How, Who	.	.	.	.	156	Case management by community case managers or social service providers	Where: Community site/center How: Community center Who: Case manager	AP: 2 times In hosp: NR After discharge: 2 times
How	Haider, 2020, 31964564	Contraceptive care	Urban	NR	231	Contraceptive counseling at well-baby visit	Where: Clinic How: As part of well-child visit Who: OB/GYN, nurse midwife IT: Primarily in-person	After discharge: 1 time
How	.	.	.	.	215	Contraceptive counseling at routine PP visit	Where: Clinic How: Dedicated PP visit Who: OB/GYN IT: Primarily in-person	After discharge: 1 time
How	Laliberte, 2016, 26871448	General PP care	NR	Public, community	294	Multidisciplinary clinic within 48 hr PP with additional visits as indicated	Where: Clinic How: Dedicated PP visit Who: Family physician, nurse, lactation consultant	After discharge: 1 time
How	.	.	.	.	134	Standard Care	Where: Clinic How: Dedicated PP visit, Who: Family physician	NR
How	Rozga, 2016, 27423234	BF care	NR	Public, academic, tertiary	472	Home visits, phone calls, and WIC clinical support from peer counselors as part of the BF Initiative Program	Where: Hospital, Home, Telehealth/e-Health, WIC Program office/site How: Group visit, Home visit, Telehealth/virtual visit, Who: Peer IT: Phone visits	AP: monthly phone calls until delivery After discharge: wkly phonecalls in first mo, monthly thereafter
How	.	.	.	.	226	Standard home visit, phone calls, and hospital contact with peer counselors	Where: Hospital, Home, Telehealth/e-Health, How: Home visit, Telehealth/virtual visit Who: Peer IT: Phone visits	AP: one home visit, monthly phone calls until delivery After discharge: wkly phonecalls in first mo, monthly thereafter
How	Witt, 2021, 33956505	BF care	Urban	NR	197	Before integration of lactation consultant and primary care provider care	Where: Clinic How: Dedicated PP visit Who: Family physician	N/A
How	.	.	.	.	245	After integration of lactation consultant and primary care provider care	Where: Clinic How: Dedicated PP visit Who: Family physician, lactation consultant	After discharge: ≥1 time; 40 min
When	Bernard, 2018, 29778586	General PP care	Urban, Rural	Public	93	Two PP visits (3 & 6 wk)	Where: Clinic How: Dedicated PP visit Who: Resident, nurse practitioner	After discharge: 2 times; 3 & 6 wk
When	.	.	.	.	95	One PP visit (6 wk)	Where: Clinic How: Dedicated PP visit Who: Resident, nurse practitioner	After discharge: 1 time; 6 wk
When	Pluym, 2021, 33785465	General PP care	NR	Academic, tertiary	NR	Two PP visits (2 & 6 wk)	Where: Clinic, How: Dedicated PP visit Who: OB/GYN	After discharge: 2 times; 2 wk & 6 wk
When	.	.	.	.	NR	One PP visit (6 wk)	Where: Clinic How: Dedicated PP visit Who: OB/GYN	After discharge: 1 time; 6 wk
When	Chen, 2019, 30414598	General PP care	Urban	High-volume, public, non-academic	256	One PP visit (2–3 wk)	Where: Clinic How: Dedicated PP visit Who: OB/GYN	After discharge: 1 time; 2–3 wk
When	.	.	Urban	.	256	One PP visit (6 wk)	Where: Clinic How: Dedicated PP visit Who: OB/GYN	After discharge: 1 time; 6 wk
When	Dahlke, 2011, 21843688	Contraceptive care	Urban	High-volume	15	Immediate PP levonorgestrel IUD within 10 min after delivery	Where: Birth center How: After delivery Who: OB/GYN	In hosp: 1 time; ≤10 min after delivery
	.	.	.	.	15	PP levonorgestrel IUD 10 min-48 hr after delivery	Where: Birth center How: After delivery Who: OB/GYN	In hosp: 1 time; 10 min-48 hr after delivery
	.	.	.	.	16	PP levonorgestrel IUD at 6 wk PP	Where: Clinic, How: Dedicated PP visit Who: OB/GYN	After discharge: 1 time; 6 wk
When	Chen, 2010, 20966692	Contraceptive care	Urban	NR	51	Immediate PP levonorgestrel IUD placement after delivery	Where: Hospital How: Hospital Who: NR	In hosp: 1 time; before discharge
When	.	.	.	.	51	Levonorgestrel IUD placement at 6–8 wk PP visit	Where: Clinic How: Dedicated PP visit Who: NR	After discharge: 1 time; 6–8 wk
When	Levi, 2015, 26241250	Contraceptive care	NR	NR	56	Immediate PP levonorgestrel or copper IUD after delivery	Where: Hospital How: After delivery Who: OB/GYN	In hosp: 1 time; after delivery
When	.	.	.	.	56	Levonorgestrel or copper IUD at ≥6 wk PP	Where: Clinic, How: Dedicated PP visit Who: OB/GYN	After discharge: 1 time; ≥6 wk
When	Dempsey, 2018, N/A	Contraceptive care	Urban	Non-academic	41	Etonogestrel insertion before discharge	Where: Hospital How: Hospital Who: OB/GYN	In hosp: 1 time; before discharge
When	.	.	.	.	40	Etonogestrel insertion at 6 wk PP visit	Where: Clinic How: Dedicated PP visit	After discharge: 1 time; 6 wk
When	Baldwin, 2019, N/A	Contraceptive care	Urban	Academic, tertiary	100	Levonorgestrel IUD placement at 3 wk PP	Where: Clinic How: Dedicated PP visit	After discharge: 1 time; 3 wk
When	.	.	.	.	97	Levonorgestrel IUD placement at 6 wk PP	Where: Clinic How: Dedicated PP visit	After discharge: 1 time; 6 wk
When	Whitaker, 2014, 24457061	Contraceptive care	NR	NR	20	Immediate levonorgestrel IUD placement after delivery	Where: Hospital How: After delivery Who: OB/GYN	In hosp: 1 time; after delivery
When	.	.	.	.	22	Levonorgestrel IUD placement at 4–8 wk PP visit	Where: Clinic How: Dedicated PP visit Who: OB/GYN	After discharge: 1 time; 4–8 wk
When	Morse, 2016, N/A	Contraceptive care	Urban	NR	29	Etonogestrel implant before discharge	Where: Hospital	In hosp: 1 time; before discharge
When	.	.	.	.	30	Etonogestrel implant at 6 wk PP	Where: Clinic How: Dedicated PP visit	After discharge: 1 time; 6 wk
When	Chen, 2018, N/A	Contraceptive care	Urban	High-volume, public, non-academic	79	PP DMPA administration before discharge	Where: Hospital How: Hospital Who: OB/GYN	In hosp: 1 time; after delivery
When	.	.	.	.	78	PP DMPA administration 4–6 wk PP	Where: Clinic How: Dedicated PP visit Who: OB/GYN	After discharge: 1 time; 4–6 wk
When	Jensen, 2019, N/A	Contraceptive care	Urban	Academic	17	Immediate PP levonorgestrel IUD placement	Where: Hospital How: Hospital	In hosp: 1 time; ≤1 hr after delivery
When	.	.	.	.	16	Levonorgestrel IUD placement at 6 wk PP visit	Where: Clinic How: Dedicated PP visit Who: OB/GYN	After discharge: 1 time; 6 wk
Who	Kozhimannil, 2013, 23837663	General PP care	Suburban	High-volume, public, non-academic, community	1069	Doula support through the Everyday Miracles Program	How: Dedicated PP visit, Who: Doula	NR
Who	.	.	.	.	51721	No doula supported care	N/A	N/A
Who	Pan, 2020, 32437282	General PP care	NR	Academic, tertiary	353	Home visits by community health worker and referral to social worker through the Baby Love Program	Where: Home visit How: Home visit Who: Community health worker, social worker	NR
Who	.	.	.	.	102	Standard care without the Baby Love Program	NR	NR
Who	Edwards, 1997, 9170692	General PP care	Urban	Public	279	Public Health Nurse Telephone Visit	Where: Telehealth/e-Health How: Telehealth/virtual visit Who: Nurse IT: Phone visits	After discharge: 1 time; 1–2 wk after discharge
	.	.	.	.	218	Health Department Clerk Call	Where: Telehealth/e-Health How: Telehealth/virtual visit, Who: Public health department clerk IT: Phone visits	After discharge: 1 time; 5 wk after discharge
	.	.	.	.	291	Postpartum education package	Where: Mail How: Mail	NR
Who	Falconi, 2022, 35812994	General PP care	NR	NR	298	Doula support	Where: Hospital, How: Dedicated PP visit, Prenatal visit and inhospital labor. Who: OB/GYN, Midwife, Doula. Coordination: integrating doula into maternity care networks.	AP: at least 4 Prenatal visits In Hospital: supporting during labor and birth. After Discharge: 4 PP visits
Who	.	.	.	.	298	No doula support	Where: Hospital How: NR Who: NR Coordination: NR	AP: NR In Hospital: NR After Discharge: NR
Who	Buckley, 1990, 2328162	General PP care	Urban	Academic	34	PP visit and phone call by nurse practitioner	Where: Clinic, Telehealth/e-Health How: Dedicated PP visit, telehealth/virtual visit Who: Nurse practitioner IT: Primarily in-person, Phone visits	In hosp: 1 time; 15 min After discharge: 1 time; 15 min; 1 wk
Who	.	.	Urban	.	25	No PP visit and phone call by NP	Where: Clinic	N/A
Who	Tandon, 2021, 33655429	General PP care	Urban	NR	293	Home visits by mental health professionals through the Mothers and Babies (MB) Program	Where: Home, How: Home visit Who: Mental health professional	After discharge: 6 times; 1.5 hr; wkly
	.	.	.	.	382	Home visits by community health workers through the Mothers and Babies (MB) Program	Where: Home, How: Home visit Who: Community health worker	After discharge: 6 times; 1.5 hr; wkly
	.	.	.	.	149	Usual home visits (visitor type unspecified)	Where: Home, How: Home visit	NR
Who	Simmons, 2013, 23218851	Contraceptive care	Urban	Academic	25	Contraceptive Counselor phone calls at 2 wk and clinic visit at 6 wk	Where: Clinic, Telehealth/e-Health How: Telehealth/virtual visit Who: Contraceptive counselor IT: Phone visits	After discharge: 2 times; 2 wk & 6 wk
Who	.	.	.	.	24	Clinic visit at 6 wk	Where: Clinic How: Dedicated PP visit How: Nurse midwife	After discharge: 1 time; 6 wk
Who	Dennis, 2002, 11800243	BF care	Urban	N/A	132	BF peer support and standard care	Where: Hospital, clinic, community site/center, telephone support How: Telephone, hospital Who: OB/GYN, pediatrician, nurse, lactation consultant, peer IT: Primarily in-person, telephone	NR
Who	.	.	.	.	124	BF standard care only	Where: Hospital, clinic, telephone support How: Dedicated PP visit Who: OB/GYN, pediatrician, nurse, lactation consultant IT: Primarily in-person, telephone	NR
Who	Reeder, 2014, 25092936	BF care	Urban and rural	NR	1250	Peer counseling with 4–8 telephone calls and WIC Program	Where: Telehealth/e-Health How: WIC Program office/site, telehealth/virtual visit Who: Peer	AP: 2 times; initial assessment and 2 wk before due date After discharge: 2–6 times; 1 wk, 2 wk, 1 mo, 2 mo, 3 mo, & 4 mo
Who	.	.	.	.	635	WIC Program but no peer counseling	Where: WIC office/site How: WIC Program Who: WIC staff	NR
Who, IT	Gross, 1998, 12515413	BF care	NR	NR	35	Video and peer counselor BF education	Where: Telehealth/e-Health, WIC Program office/site Who: Peer IT: Videos	AP: 9 times; 8 videos, 1 peer visit In hosp: 1 time; 2–5 min video, 1 hr visit After discharge: 1 time; 1hr
	.	.	.	.	32	Peer counselor BF education	Where: WIC Program office/site Who: Peer	In hosp: 1 time; 1 hr After discharge: wkly up to 16 wk PP
	.	.	.	.	33	Video BF education	Where: Telehealth/e-Health How: Telehealth/virtual visit IT: Videos	AP: 8 times; 2–5 min videos
	.	.	.	.	15	Standard WIC BF education	Where: WIC Program office/site Who: WIC staff	NR
Who	Anderson, 2005, 16143742	BF care	Urban	Academic	63	Peer counselor BF support and conventional support from clinic staff	Where: Hospital, Clinic, Home, How: Home visit Who: Nurse, lactation consultant, peer IT: Primarily in-person, phone visits	AP: 3 times In hosp: ≥1 time/day After discharge: 9 times; 3 in 1^st wk, 2 in 2^nd wk, & 1 per wk in wk 3–6
Who	.	.	.	.	72	Conventional BF support from clinic staff only	Where: Clinic, dedicated PP visit How: Part of prenatal, perinatal and after discharge care, dedicated PP visit Who: Nurse, lactation consultant IT: Primarily in-person, phone visits	AP: 1 time In hosp: ≥1 time/day After discharge: As needed
Who	Chapman, 2004, 15351756	BF care	Urban	Academic, tertiary	90	Heritage and Pride peer counseling program	Where: Hospital, home How: Dedicated PP visit, home visit Who: Nurse, peer	AP: 1 time In hosp: ≥1 time daily After discharge: 3 times
Who	.	.	.	.	75	Routine BF education	Where: Hospital How: Dedicated PP visit Who: Nurse	NR
Who	Wambach, 2011, 20876551	BF care	Urban	Academic	128	Lactation consultantpeer counselor team support	Where: Clinic, How: Dedicated PP visit, Telehealth/virtual visit, Who: Lactation consultant, peer IT: Primarily in-person, phone visits	AP: 2 times; 1.5–2 hr In hosp: NR After discharge: 5 times; 4, 7, 11, 18, 28 d
	.	.	.	.	128	Advanced-practice nurse and peer counselor attention control	Where: Clinic How: Dedicated PP visit, telehealth/virtual visit Who: Nurse, peer IT: Primarily in-person, phone visits	AP: 2 times; 1.5–2 hr In hosp: NR After discharge: 5 times; 4, 7, 11, 18, 28 d
	.	.	.	.	134	Usual care at clinic	Where: Clinic How: Dedicated PP visit	NR
Who	Chapman, 2013, 23209111	BF care	Urban	N/A	76	Specialized BF peer counseling	Where: Hospital, home How: Dedicated PP visit, home visit Who: Nurse, peer	AP: 2 times; 1 hr In hosp: 3 times; 1.5 hr After discharge: 5 times
Who	.	.	.	.	78	Standard BF care by BF: Heritage and Pride peer counselors	Where: Hospital, home How: Dedicated PP visit, home visit Who: Nurse, peer	In hosp: 2 times; 0.5 hr After discharge: NR
Who	Srinivas, 2015, 25193602	BF care	Urban	NR	50	BF counseling by peer and non-peer counselors	Where: Clinic, How: Dedicated PP visit, Telehealth/virtual visit, Who: Pediatrician, lactation consultant, peer, WIC nutritionist IT: Primarily in-person, Phone visits	AP: 28 wk gestation-1 wk pre-delivery In hosp: NR After discharge: 9 times; at 3–5d, wkly for 1 mo, biwkly up to 3 mo, once at 4 mo
Who	.	.	.	.	53	BF counseling by non-peer counselors only	Where: Clinic How: Dedicated PP visit Who: Pediatrician, lactation consultant, WIC nutritionist	NR
Who, IT	Kerver, 2019, N/A	BF care, General PP/risk counseling	Urban	High-volume, academic, community	28	In-person, phone, and online support by peer counselors and smart phone-based weight control program	Where: Clinic, Home Telehealth/e-Health How: Home visit, Telehealth/virtual visit Who: Peer IT: Smartphone/computer applications	NR
Who, IT	.	.	.	.	25	Support by prenatal care provider	Where: Clinic How: Dedicated PP visit Who: OB/GYN IT: Primarily in-person	NR
Who	Porteous, 2000, 11155608	BF care	Urban	Academic	26	Hospital visits by midwife and telephone access through 1 mo PP	Where: Hospital, telehealth/e-Health How: Dedicated PP visit Telehealth/virtual visit Who: Midwife IT: Primarily in-person, Phone visits	In hosp: Daily After discharge: 4 times; 4 wk; 10–15 min; wkly
Who	.	.	.	.	25	Conventional nursing care group	Where: Hospital How: Dedicated PP visit Who: Nurse	NR
Who	Rasmussen, 2011, 20958105	BF care	Rural	Academic	20	Additional BF support by a lactation consultant	Where: Clinic, Telehealth/e-Health How: Dedicated PP visit, telehealth/virtual visit Who: Nurse, lactation consultant IT: Primarily in-person, phone visits	AP: 1 time In hosp: Multiple times; 8 hrly After discharge: 2 times; 1–3 d
Who	.	.	.	.	20	Standard BF support without a lactation consultant	Where: Clinic, How: Dedicated PP visit, Telehealth/virtual visit, Who: Nurse	AP: 1 time In hosp: Multiple times; ~8-hourly After discharge: NR
Who, Provider Interventions	Bonuck, 2014a, 24354834	BF care	Urban	Community	129	Electronic prompts for provider and lactation consultant for patients	Where: Clinic, telehealth/e-Health How: Dedicated PP visit, Telehealth/virtual visit Who: OB/GYN, lactation consultant IT: Primarily in-person, phone visits	AP: 7 times; 1 hr each In hosp: 1 time; 45 min After discharge: >1 hr; 3 mo or until BF cessation
Who, Provider Interventions	.	.	.	.	133	Standard BF support	N/A	N/A
Who, Provider Interventions	Bonuck, 2014b, 24354834	BF care	Urban	Academic	238	Electronic prompts for provider and lactation consultant for patients	Where: Clinic, Telehealth/e-Health How: Dedicated PP visit, Telehealth/virtual visit Who: OB/GYN, lactation consultant	AP: 7 times; 1 hr each In hosp: 1 time; 45 min After discharge: >1 hr; 3 mo or until BF cessation
	.	.	.	.	77	Only lactation consultant for patients	Where: Clinic How: Dedicated PP visit Who: Lactation consultant	AP: 2 times; 1 hr each In hosp: 1 time; 45 min After discharge: >1 hr; 3 mo or until BF cessation
	.	.	.	.	236	Only electronic prompts for provider	Where: Telehealth/e-Health How: Telehealth/virtual visit Who: OB/GYN	AP: 5 times; 1 hr each
	.	.	.	.	77	Standard BF support	N/A	N/A
Who, IT	Uscher-Pines, 2020, 31629118	BF care	Rural	Academic	94	Unlimited on-demand video BF support by lactation consultant through Telelactation app and standard in-hospital BF support	Where: Hospital, Telehealth/e-Health, How: Dedicated PP visit, Telehealth/virtual visit, Who: OB/GYN, Pediatrician, nurse, lactation consultant IT: Bidirectional telemedicine/virtual televisits, smartphone/computer applications	After discharge: Unlimited; 3 mo; 24 hr/d
Who, IT	.	.	.	.	93	Standard in-hospital BF support only	Where: Hospital, How: Dedicated PP visit, Who: OB/GYN, pediatrician, nurse	NR
Coordination/management	Rutledge, 2016, 27350389	General PP care	NR	NR	1709	Case management and referral through Maternity Care Coordination (MCC) programs	Where: Clinic, Home How: Home visit, Who: Nurse, Social worker Combination of people at different time-points: NR Coordination: case management and referral services	AP: NR In Hospital: NR After Discharge: NR
Coordination/management	.	.	.	.	4848	Usual care	Where: NR How: NR Who: NR Coordination: NR	AP: NR In Hospital: NR After Discharge: NR
Coordination/management	Tsai, 2011, 21365543	General PP care	Urban	Public, academic	106	Before initiative to provide patient PP appointment information in the hospital and a photo of patient and baby at PP visit	Where: Clinic How: Dedicated PP visit Who: Clinic staff	N/A
Coordination/management	.	.	.	.	115	After initiative to provide patient PP appointment information in the hospital and a photo of patient and baby at PP visit	Where: Clinic How: Dedicated PP visit Who: Clinic staff	In hosp: 1 time; pre-discharge After discharge: 1 time; PP visit
Coordination/management	Mendez-Figueroa, 2014, 24481876	Screening	Urban	Public, Academic, Tertiary	207	Telephone reminders for diabetes screening	Where: Clinic How: Dedicated PP visit. Scheduled appointment for OGTT. Who: Nurse. Combination of people at different time-points: Bilingual outreach worker worked with patient and community-based provider. Coordination: Other: Scheduling an appointment for PP OGTT, issuing reminders, phone call 1 week prior to the OGTT. IT: Primarily in-person. Issuing reminders, phone call 1 week prior to the scheduled OGTT.	AP: NR In Hospital: PP in-hospital stay visit follow-up and scheduling an appointment for PP OGTT After Discharge: Scheduled OGTT at 4–6 weeks PP, reminder 1 week before the appointment by phone call, 3 testing appointments were made for patients failing to attend.
Coordination/management	.	.	.	.	181	No telephone reminders for diabetes screening	Where: Clinic. How: NR Who: NR IT: N/A (Primarily in-person)	AP: NR, In Hospital: NR After Discharge: NR
Coordination/ management, Provider Interventions	Clark, 2009, 19268878	Screening care	Urban	High (Provides services to 750000, perform 8000 deliveries per yr), Public, Academic, Tertiary	81	Provider and patient mail reminders for diabetes screening	Where: Postal How: Postal reminders Coordination: Reminder for the screening of GMD for both. When reminders were sent to both the patient and the physician, the physician reminder was modified to inform the physician that the patient had received a requisition for the recommended screening test. IT: Postal reminders	AP: N/A In Hospital: N/A After Discharge: Once for 3 months
	.	.	.	.	31	Provider reminder for diabetes screening	Where: Postal How: Postal reminders IT: Postal reminders.	AP: N/A In Hospital: N/A After Discharge: Once for 3 months
	.	.	.	.	76	Patient mail reminder for diabetes screening	Where: Postal How: Postal reminders IT: Postal reminders	AP: N/A In Hospital: N/A After Discharge: Once for 3 months.
	.	.	.	.	35	No reminders for diabetes screening	Where: N/A How: N/A IT: N/A	AP: N/A In Hospital: N/A After Discharge: N/A
Coordination/ management, IT	Shea, 2011, 21466755	Screening	NR	Public, academic, tertiary	55	Mail and/or phone reminder for diabetes screening	Where: Telehealth/e-Health, How: Mail, Telehealth/virtual visit, mail, Coordination: Strategy to facilitate access to appointments/scheduling, IT: Phone visits	After discharge: 1 time; 3 mo
	.	.	.	.	90	Mail reminder only for diabetes screening	How: Mail, Coordination: Strategy to facilitate access to appointments/scheduling	After discharge: 1 time; 3 mo
	.	.	.	.	117	No mail/phone reminder for diabetes screening	N/A	N/A
IT	Martinez-Brockman, 2018, 29325660	BF care	Urban	N/A	94	Text messaging of the benefits of BF and BF peer counselors	Where: Telehealth/e-Health, WIC office/site How: Telehealth/virtual visit, WIC program Who: Lactation consultant, peer, WIC staff IT: Bidirectional texting	After discharge: ≤3 mo
IT	.	.	.	.	80	BF peer counselors only	Where: WIC Program office/site How: WIC program Who: Lactation consultant, peer, WIC staff	NR
IT	Abbass-Dick, 2020, 32739716	BF care	Urban	Tertiary	106	eHealth BF co-parenting website	Where: Telehealth/e-Health How: Telehealth/virtual visit IT: Smartphone/computer applications	After discharge: NR
IT	.	.	.	.	111	Available community resources only	Where: Community site/center	After discharge: NR
IT	Bender, 2022, 36201773	Breastfeeding care	Urban	Academic ,Tertiary	106	Text message-based BF support	Where: Text-based support. In the rare instance that issues could not be remedied by text message, referrals for telehealth or in-person visits with lactation specialists or other health care professionals were made How: Text-based breastfeeding support. In the rare instance that issues could not be remedied by text message, referrals for telehealth or in-person visits with lactation specialists or other health care professionals were made Who: OB/GYN, Other: In the rare instance that issues could not be remedied by text message, referrals for telehealth or in-person visits with lactation specialists or other health care professionals were made Coordination: In the rare instance that issues could not be remedied by text message, referrals for telehealth or in-person visits with lactation specialists or other health care professionals were made IT: Bidirectional texting, Other: Text-based support via the Way to Health platform	AP: N/A In Hospital: N/A After Discharge: Follow-up: 2/wk for first 4 wk PP, and once/wk thereafter for the remaining 2wks PP (The first 6 wks there are the supportive texts)
IT	.	.	.	.	110	Usual care	Where; NR How: Women in this group will be directed to their physician with any questions or concerns during the study period Who: Women in this group will be directed to their physician with any questions or concerns during the study period Coordination: Women in this group will be directed to their physician with any questions or concerns during the study period. IT: NR	AP: NR In Hospital: NR After Discharge: NR
IT	Ahmed, 2016, 26779838	BF care	Urban	Academic	49	Interactive web-based BF monitoring and usual care	Where: Hospital How: Telehealth/e-Health, phone visit, telehealth/virtual visit Who: Lactation consultant IT: Smartphone/computer applications	AP: NR In hosp: 1 time After discharge: Daily, 1 mo
IT	.	.	.	.	57	Usual BF support	Where: Hospital How: Phone visit Who: Lactation consultant IT: Phone visits	AP: NR In hosp: 1 time After discharge: 1 time, ≤1 wk
Provider Interventions	Domingo, 2022, 35237835	Screening	Suburban	NR	133	EMR reminder for providers for OGTT testing	Where: Clinic, How: Dedicated PP visit Who: Electronic medical record	AP: N/A, In Hospital: N/A After Discharge: N/A
Provider Interventions	.	.	.	.	113	No EMR reminder for providers for OGTT testing	Where: Clinic How: Dedicated PP visit Who: Electronic medical record.	AP: N/A In Hospital: N/A After Discharge: N/A

: Abbreviations: AP = antepartum, BF = breastfeeding, d = day, DMPA = depot-medroxyprogesterone acetate, EMR = electronic medical record, hosp = hospital, hr = hour, GDM = gestational diabetes mellitus, IT =information technology, IUD = intrauterine device, LARC = long-acting reversible contraceptive, min = minute, mo = month, N/A = not applicable, NR = not reported, OB/GYN = obstetrics and gynecology, PMID = PubMed ID, PP = postpartum, wk = week
: Studies did not report on titrations or unplanned modifications to delivery strategies.

Table C-1.3Key Question 1: Healthcare delivery strategies – summary of sample details

Study, Publication Year, PMID	Age in Years, Mean (SD) or as Specified	BMI, Mean (SD) or as Specified	Race	Educational Attainment in Years, Mean (SD) or as Specified	Employment Status	SES	Miscellane ous	SUDs	Chronic Conditions	Delivery Type	Offspring Characteristics
Lieu, 2000, 10790463	27.9 (6.1)	NR	W: 708 (60.9) B: 83 (7.1) H: 145 (12.5) O1: 227 (19.5)	Less than HS degree: 85 (7.3) HS degree or more: 1078 (92.7)	NR	At or below federal poverty level: 80 (6.9) 101%–200% of federal poverty level: 234 (20.1) >200% of federal poverty level: 802 (69)	NR	NR	NR	V: 1163 (100)	Stillbirth: 0 Spontaneous or induced abortion: 0 Preterm birth: 0 NICU: 0
Gagnon, 2002, 12042545	30 (4.8)	NR	NR	Up to graduate education: 522 (89.1) Attended postgraduate studies: 64 (10.9)	NR	NR	Born outside of Canada: 312 (53.2)	NR	NR	V: 586 (100)	NR
Norr, 2003, 12716399	<20: 190 (39.8) ≥20: 287 (60.2)	NR	B: 323 (67.7) H: 154 (32.3)	Some HS or less: 235 (49.3) HS graduate: 242 (50.7)	NR	NR	Medicaid: 477 (100)	OUD: 0	NR	NR	Stillbirth: 0 Spontaneous or induced abortion: 0
Escobar, 2001, 11533342	29.1 (5.6) Median 29	NR	W: 480 (47.3) B: 27 (2.7) H: 207 (20.4) O1: 300 (29.6)	HS graduate or less: 263 (25.9) Some college/ technical school: 325 (32.1) College graduate or more: 426 (42)	NR	≤$20000: 76 (7.5) $20001–$40000: 176 (17.4) $40001–$60000: 193 (19) $60000: 477 (47)	NR	OUD: 0 Other: 0	NR	V: 1014 (100)	Stillbirth: 0 Spontaneous or induced abortion: 0 Preterm birth: 0 NICU: 0 Neonatal death: 0 Congenital anomalies: 0
Steel O’Connor, 2003, 12675164	27.4 (5.3)	NR	NR	Less than HS: 97 (13.8) Completed HS: 64 (9.1) Some post-secondary: 83 (11.9) Completed post-secondary: 458 (65.2)	NR	NR	NR	NR	NR	V: 702 (100)	Multiple births: 0 Stillbirth: 0 Spontaneous or induced abortion: 0
McCarter, 2019, 31222789	29.6 (NR)	NR	W: 306 (85.7) B: 51 (14.3) H: 29 (8.1)	High school or less 80 (22.4) Some college 117 (32.8) College degree or higher 162 (45.4)	NR	NR	WIC: 131 (36.7)	NR	NR	V: 283 (79.3) C: 74 (20.7)	NR
Paul, 2012, 22064874	29 (5.5) <20: 49 (4.2) ≥20: 1105 (95.8)	NR	W: 971 (84.4) B: 63 (5.5) A: 50 (4.3) H: 57 (5) O1: 10 (0.9)	Some HS: 31 (2.7) HS graduate: 171 (14.9) Some college and/or technical school: 287 (25) College graduate: 427 (37.1) Postgraduate training: 234 (20.3)	NR	Annual income <$5,000: 98 (8.5) Annual income $5,000-$49,999: 210 (18.2) Annual income $50,000-$74,999: 251 (21.8) Annual income $75,000-$99,999: 222 (19.2) Annual income ≥$100,000: 244 (21.1) Missing data/refused/unknown: 129 (11.2)	Medicaid insurance: 153 (13.4) WIC participation : 197 (17.1)	NR	PE: 49 (4.3) HTN: 101 (8.8) DM: 62 (5.4)	V: 794 (68.9) C: 361 (31.1)	Multiple births: 15 (1.3) Stillbirth: 0 Spontaneous or induced abortion: 0 Preterm birth: 0 NICU: 0 Neonatal death: 0 Congenital anomalies: 0
Arias, 2022, 35331971	Median 30.2 IQR (25.47–34.29)	NR	W: 399 (25.3) B: 966 (61.2) A: 132 (8.4) O1: 66 (4.2)	Less than high school 159 (10) High School Diploma/ GED degree 743 (47.1) Advanced degree 648 (41) Unknown 28 (1.8)	NR	NR	NR	NR	HDP: 483 (30.6) HTN: (Chronic) 129 (8.2) GD: 104 (6.6) DM: Pregestational DM 42 (2.7) CVD: Cardiomyopathy 5 (0.3)	V: 1078 (68.3) C: 501 (31.7)	Multiple births 42 (2.7) NICU: 217 (13.7) Neonatal death: 24 (1.5)
Dodge, 2019, 31675088	29.4 (6.2) Adolescent mother: 21 (6.6)	NR	W: 178 (56.3) B: 120 (40) H: 90 (28.5) O1: 18 (5.7)	NR	NR	NR	Medicaid: Medicaid or no insurance: 197 (62.3)	NR	NR	V: 230 (72.8) C: 86 (27.2)	Multiple births 15 (7.4)
Pugh, 2002, 12000411	21.6 (4.38)	NR	W: 7.3 B: 92.7	>12yr/high school 35 (84.9)	NR	Low income 41 (100)	NR	NR	NR	NR	NR
Mersky, 2021, 33078655	26.8 (6.1)	NR	B: 112 (47.3) H: 96 (40.5) O1: 29 (12.2)	Up to secondary education: 182 (76.8) Postsecondary education: 55 (23.2)	NR	Low-income: 237 (100)	NR	NR	NR	NR	NR
Pugh, 2010, 19854119	23.1 (5.3) 13–17: 33 (10.1) 18–19: 56 (17.1) 20–24: 137 (41.8) 25–34: 91 (27.7) 35–43: 11 (3.4)	NR	W: 15 (4.6) B: 286 (87.2) H: 13 (4) O1: 14 (4.3)	Below HS: 87 (26.5) HS/GED: 121 (36.9) Some College: 83 (25.3) College Grad/Grad Degree: 37 (11.3)	Employed, in school: 72 (22) Employed, not in school: 139 (42.4) Unemployed, in school: 60 (18.3) Unemployed, not in school: 57 (17.4)	Low income: 328 (100)	WIC: 328 (100)	NR	NR	V: 241 (73.5) C: 87 (26.5)	NR
Edwards, 2013, 24187119	18.1 (1.7)	NR	B: 248 (100)	10.8 (1.5) Not in school: 113 (45.6) In school: 135 (54.4)	Unemployed: 211 (85.1) Employed: 37 (14.9)	NR	Medicaid: 233 (93.8)	NR	NR	NR	Neonatal death: 2 (0.8)
Gill, 2007, 17557933	NR	NR	H: 158 (100)	NR	NR	NR	WIC: 158 (100)	NR	NR	NR	Preterm birth: 0 NICU: 0 Neonatal death: 0 Congenital anomalies: 0
Polk, 2021, 34671758	27.7 (6)	NR	W: 8 (6.9) B: 11 (9.5) H: 94 (81) O1: 3 (2.6)	≤6th Grade: 32 (27.6) 7th to 12th Grade: 38 (31.9) HS or GED: 32 (27.6) Some college: 5 (4.3) College: 8 (6.9)	NR	NR	Medicaid: 23 (19.8)	NR	PE: 1 (0.9) GD: 10 (8.6)	NR	Stillbirth: 0 Spontaneous or induced abortion: 0 Preterm birth: 4 (3.4) NICU: 0 Neonatal death: 0
Koniak-Griffin, 2003, 12657988	16.8 (1.1)	NR	W: 19 (19) B: 11 (11) H: 65 (64) O1: 7 (6)	Enrolled, attending HS: 50 (49.5) Enrolled, not attending: 13 (12.9) Dropped out: 27 (26.7) Graduated HS/GED: 8 (7.9) Other: 3 (3)	Employed: 15 (15) Unemployed: 87 (85)	NR	Medicaid: 86 (84)	OUD: 0	NR	NR	Stillbirth: 0 Spontaneous or induced abortion: 0 NICU: 25 (25)
Hans, 2018, 29855838	18.4 (1.8)	NR	W: 26 (8.3) B: 140 (44.9) H: 117 (37.5) O1: 29 (9.3)	10.9 (1.5) Not in school: 148 (47.4) In school: 164 (52.6)	NR	NR	Medicaid: 278 (91.1) WIC: 268 (85.9)	NR	NR	V: 248 (79.5) C: 64 (20.5)	Preterm birth: 22 (7.1) NICU: 44 (14.1)
Haider, 2020, 31964564	<20: 42 (9.4) 20–24: 128 (28.7) 25–29: 125 (28) 30–34: 97 (21.8) ≥35: 54 (12.1)	NR	W: 52 (11.7) B: 256 (57.4) A: 19 (4.3) H: 102 (22.9) O1: 16 (3.6)	<HS/ in HS: 32 (7.2) HS, graduate: 126 (28.3) Some college/ 2yr degree: 180 (40.4) Bachelor’s degree or higher: 108 (24.2)	Full-time: 54 (12.1) Part-time: 23 (5.2) Maternity leave: 185 (41.5) Unemployed: 182 (40.8)	NR	NR	NR	NR	V: 324 (72.6) C: 116 (26)	NR
Laliberte, 2016, 26871448	15–19: 2 (0.4) 20–24: 22 (5.1) 25–29: 95 (22.2) 30–34: 165 (38.5) 35–39: 108 (25.3) ≥40: 26 (6) Missing: 10	NR	NR	Up to some HS: 1 (0.25) Completed HS: 33 (7.7) Vocational/technical training after HS: 67 (15.7) Completed university: 316 (73.8) Missing: 11 (2.6)	NR	NR	NR	NR	NR	V: 339 (71.8) C: 133 (28.2)	Multiple births: 0
Rozga, 2016, 27423234	<20: 91 (13.1) 20–29: 483 (69.2) ≥30: 124 (17.7)	NR	W: 512 (74.3) B: 87 (12.5) H: 80 (11.4) O1: 13 (1.9)	<HS Diploma: 143 (20.5) HS Diploma or equivalent: 555 (79.5)	NR	NR	WIC: 667 (95.6)	NR	NR	NR	Preterm birth: 50 (7.2)
Witt, 2021, 33956505	27 (16–43)	NR	W: 297 (67.2) B: 104 (23.6) H: 145 (32.7)	NR	NR	NR	NR	NR	NR	V: 349 (79) C: 93 (21)	Preterm birth: 119 (27) NICU: 18 (4.1)
Bernard, 2018, 29778586	25.7 (5)	NR	W: 15 (8) B: 168 (89.4) O1: 5 (2.7)	Less than HS: 28 (14.9) HS/GED: 82 (43.6) Some college/associate’s degree: 63 (33.5) Vocational/technical school: 9 (4.8) College degree: 6 (3.2)	Working full-time: 61 (32.4) Working part-time: 31 (16.5) Unemployed: 62 (33) Disabled/sick leave/other: 23 (12.2) Full-time student: 11 (5.9)	NR	NR	NR	NR	V: 125 (66.5) C: 63 (33.5)	Stillbirth: 0 Spontaneous or induced abortion: 0 NICU: 0
Pluym, 2021, 33785465	30.4 (5.95)	With obesity at consent (PP): 133 (53.2)	W: 28 (11.2) B: 24 (9.6) A: 24 (9.6) H: 140 (56) O1: 34 (13.6)	<9 yr: 4 (1.6) 9−11 yr: 16 (6.4) 12−16 yr: 1 (0.4) >16 yr: 39 (15.6)	NR	NR	NR	NR	HTN: 41 (16.4) DM: 74 (29.6) CVD: 6 (2.4)	V: 176 (70.4) C: 74 (29.6)	Multiple births: 6 (2.4) NICU: 26 (10.4)
Chen, 2019, 30414598	29.5 (5.4) <30: 247 (48.2) ≥30: 265 (51.8)	NR	W: 340 (66.4) B: 51 (10) A: 66 (12.9) H: 145 (28.3) O1: 21 (4.4) O2: 34 (6.6)	HS or less: 111 (21.7) Some college: 155 (30.3) College graduate: 136 (26.6) Graduate school: 110 (21.5)	Employed full-time: 251 (49) Employed part-time: 69 (13.5) Unemployed: 71 (13.9) Homemaker: 91 (17.8) Full-time student: 30 (5.9)	NR	NR	NR	NR	V: 360 (70.3)	Preterm birth: 40 (7.8)
Dahlke, 2011, 21843688	25.6	NR	W: 30 (65.2) B: 11 (23.9) H: 5 (10.9)	NR	NR	NR	NR	NR	NR	V: 46 (100)	NR
Chen, 2010, 20966692	25.1 (5.3) ≤18: 0 18–65: 102 (100) ≥65: 0	NR	W: 51 (50) B: 45 (44.1) H: 5 (4.9) O1: 6 (5.9)	NR	NR	NR	Government insurance: 75 (73.5)	NR	NR	V: 102 (100)	NR
Levi, 2015, 26241250	28.5 (5.4)	NR	W: 48 (42.9) B: 28 (25) A: 2 (1.8) H: 31 (27.7) O1: 3 (2.7)	HS or less: 53 (47.3) Some college: 46 (41.1) Graduate education: 13 (11.6)	NR	Income ≤$250/mo: 6 (5.4) Income $251-$500/mo: 7 (6.3) Income $501-$1000/mo: 10 (8.9) Income $1001-$2000/mo: 33 (29.5) Income $2001-$3000/mo: 12 (10.7) Income ≥3000/mo: 33 (29.5) Refuse to answer: 11 (9.8)	Language Discordance: 0	NR	NR	C: 112 (100)	Stillbirth: 0 Spontaneous or induced abortion: 0
Dempsey, 2018, N/A	Median 19.2 SD (1.4)	NR	W: 15 (18.5) B: 61 (75.3) A: 1 (1.2) O1: 4 (4.9)	NR	NR	NR	NR	NR	NR	NR	NR
Baldwin, 2019, N/A	28.4 (6.3)	NR	H: 27 (13.7)	Up to HS/GED: 54 (27.4) More than HS: 143 (72.6)	NR	NR	Public Insurance: 95 (48.2)	NR	NR	V: 146 (74.1) C: 51 (25.9)	Multiple births: 0 Stillbirth: 0 Spontaneous or induced abortion: 0
Whitaker, 2014, 24457061	27.8 (5.8)	NR	W: 8 (19.1) B: 29 (69.1) H: 3 (7.1) O1: 2 (4.8)	NR	NR	Income <$10,000/yr: 13 (31) Income $10,000–$30,000/yr: 13 (31) Income >$30,000/yr: 16 (38)	Medicaid: 30 (71.4)	NR	NR	C: 42 (100)	NR
Morse, 2016, N/A	NR	NR	NR	NR	NR	NR	NR	NR	NR	NR	NR
Chen, 2018, NCT01463202	24.1 (4.8)	NR	W: 20 (12.7) B: 122 (77.7) H: 9 (5.7) O1: 15 (9.6)	NR	NR	NR	Language Discordance: 0	NR	NR	NR	Multiple births: 0
Jensen, 2019, N/A	NR	NR	NR	NR	NR	NR	Language Discordance: 0	NR	NR	NR	Multiple births: 0
Kozhimannil, 2013, 23837663	NR	NR	W: (56.8) B: (9.3) A: (0.6) H: (14.9) O1: (9.5) O2: (14.2) O3: (5.7)	NR	NR	NR	Medicaid: 52790 (100)	NR	NR	NR	Multiple births: 0 Stillbirth: 0 Spontaneous or induced abortion: 0
Pan, 2020, 32437282	NR	NR	NR	NR	NR	NR	Medicaid: 410 (90.1)	NR	NR	NR	Preterm birth: 62 (13.6) NICU: 76 (16.7)
Edwards, 1997, 9170692	≤25: 125 (16) >25: 662 (84)	NR	NR	Less than HS: 197 (25) At least HS: 591 (75)	NR	Household income <$20,000: 79 (10) Household income ≥$20,000: 709 (90)	NR	NR	NR	NR	Multiple births: 0
Falconi, 2022, 35812994	28.4 (5.4)	NR	W: 221 (37.1) B: 204 (34.2) A: 26 (4.4) H: 98 (16.4) O1: 47 (7.9)	NR	NR	Q1 (worst) 240 (40.3) Q2 144 (24.2) Q3 134 (22.5) Q4 (best) 42 (7) Missing/unknown 36 (6)	NR	Substance use disorder: 13 (2.2)	HDP: Gestational HTN 30 (5) HTN: 21 (3.5) GD: 31 (5.2)	V: 512 (85.9) C: 84 (14.1)	Preterm birth 42 (7)
Buckley, 1990, 2328162	18 (16–36)	NR	W: 47 (79.7) B: 5 (8.5) H: 7 (11.9)	NR	NR	NR	Medicaid: 44 (74.6)	NR	NR	V: 52.0 (88.1) C: 7 (11.9)	NR
Tandon, 2021, 33655429	26.3 (5.83)	NR	W: 245 (29.7) O1: 579 (70.3)	HS graduate or less: 493 (59.8) Some college: 331 (40.2)	Unknown: 14 (1.7) Unemployed: 520 (63.1) Employed part-time: 167 (20.3) Employed fulltime: 123 (14.9)	Income ≤$25,000/yr: 584 (70.9) Income $25,000–$49,999/yr: 151 (18.3) Income $50,000–$74,999/yr: 32 (3.9) Income $75,000–$99,999/yr: 13 (1.6) Income ≥$100,000/yr: 12 (1.5) Unknown: 32 (3.9)	Born outside US: 97 (11.8)	NR	NR	NR	NR
Simmons, 2013, 23218851	25.3 (4.8) (18–38) <25: 26 (53.1) ≥25: 23 (46.9)	NR	W: 34 (69.4) O1: 15 (30.6)	HS or less: 24 (49) Some college or higher: 25 (51)	NR	Low-income: 49 (100)	Oregon Medicaid: 49 (100)	NR	NR	V: 33 (67.4) C: 16 (32.6)	NR
Dennis, 2002, 11800243	16–24: 35 (13.7) 25–34: 191 (74.6) ≥35: 30 (11.7)	NR	NR	Some HS: 65 (25.4) Some college: 165 (64.5) Some postgraduate: 26 (10.2)	NR	Income ≤$39999/yr: 41 (16) Income $40000–$79999/yr: 101 (39.5) Income ≥$80000/yr: 98 (38.3)	Not born in North America: 35 (13.7)	NR	NR	V: 197 (77) C: 59 (23)	Multiple births: 0 Stillbirth: 0 Spontaneous or induced abortion: 0 Preterm birth: 0 NICU: 0 Neonatal death: 0 Congenital anomalies: 0
Reeder, 2014, 25092936	27.2	NR	W: (54.7) H: (93.7) O1: (6.3)	No or some HS: (41.7) At least HS graduate: (58.3)	NR	NR	WIC eligible: 1885 (100)	NR	NR	V: 1338 (71) C: 547 (29)	NR
Gross, 1998, 12515413	22.1 (5.7)	NR	B: 115 (100)	Less than HS diploma: 84 (73) HS diploma: 18 (15.7) More than HS diploma: 13 (11.3)	Employed before pregnancy: 26 (22.6)	NR	WIC eligible: 115 (100)	NR	NR	NR	Multiple births: 0
Anderson, 2005, 16143742	<20: 18 (13.3) 20–30: 91 (67.4) ≥30: 26 (19.3)	NR	W: 10 (7.4) B: 24 (17.8) H: 97 (71.9) O1: 4 (3)	Less than or some HS: 47 (34.8) HS graduate: 45 (33.3) More than HS: 43 (31.9)	Unemployed: 85 (63) Employed part-time: 36 (26.7) Employed fulltime: 14 (10.4)	NR	WIC participation : 122 (90.4)	OUD: 0	HDP: 0 HTN: 0 GD:0 DM: 0 CVD: 0	NR	Stillbirth: 0 Spontaneous or induced abortion: 0 Preterm birth: 0 NICU: 0
Chapman, 2004, 15351756	24.8 (5.8)	NR	W: (3.6) B: (8.5) H: (80) O1: (7.9)	11.6 (2.7)	Full-time: (15.9) Part-time: (22) Unemployed: (62.2)	NR	WIC participation: (72.1)	NR	NR	V: (75.6) C: (24.4)	Multiple births: 0 Stillbirth: 0 Spontaneous or induced abortion: 0 Preterm birth: 0 NICU: 0 Neonatal death: 0 Congenital anomalies: 0
Wambach, 2011, 20876551	17 (0.9) (15–18)	NR	B: (61)	In school: (71) Not in school: (29)	Unemployed: (81.8) Employed part-time: (13.2) Employed full-time: (5)	Family income <$25,000/yr: (75) Family income ≥$25,000/yr: (25)	NR	NR	NR	NR	Multiple births: 0 Spontaneous or induced abortion: 0 NICU: 0
Chapman, 2013, 23209111	Median 24 (21–31)	Median 31.8 (28.5–37.0)	W: 8 (5.2) B: 16 (10.4) H: 126 (81.8) O1: 4 (2.6)	Median 12 (10–12)	Employed prenatally: 50 (32.5) Not employed prenatally: 104 (67.5)	NR	Not born in the US/Puerto Rico: 67 (43.5) Receiving SNAP: 68 (44.2) Receiving WIC: 134 (87)	NR	NR	V: 94 (61) C: 60 (39)	Multiple births: 0 Stillbirth: 0 Preterm birth: 0
Srinivas, 2015, 25193602	NR	NR	W: 44 (42.7) B: 28 (27.2) H: 27 (26.2) O1: 7 (6.8)	Did not complete HS or GED: 61 (59.2) Completed HS or GED: 42 (40.8)	Unemployed: 64 (38.1) Employed: 39 (61.9)	NR	Public insurance: 87 (84.5)	NR	NR	NR	NR
Kerver, 2019, N/A	NR	NR	B: 53 (100)	NR	NR	NR	WIC: 53 (100)	NR	NR	NR	NR
Porteous, 2000, 11155608	NR	NR	W: 49 (96.1) O1: 2 (3.9)	HS or less: 19 (37.3) Beyond HS: 32 (62.7)	NR	NR	NR	NR	NR	V: 51 (100)	NR
Rasmussen, 2011, 20958105	27 (8.9)	40.7 (6.8) Peripartum	NR	NR	NR	NR	WIC and/ or PCAP participation: 21 (53)	NR	NR	V: 26 (65) C: 14 (35)	Multiple births: 0 Stillbirth: 0 Spontaneous or induced abortion: 0 Preterm birth: 0 NICU: 0
Bonuck, 2014a, 24354834	28.1 (5.7)	<25: 104 (39.7) 25–29.9: 77 (29.4) ≥30: 81 (30.9)	W: 13 (5) B: 75 (28.6) A: 7 (2.7) H: 146 (55.7) O1: 21 (8)	No or some HS: 32 (12.2) HS graduate: 230 (87.8)	NR	NR	Non-US born: 10 6 (40.5) WIC: 103 (39.3)	NR	NR	V: 174 (66.4) C: 88 (33.6)	Multiple births: 0 NICU: 0
Bonuck, 2014b, 24354834	27.7 (6)	<25: 199 (31.7) 25–29.9: 164 (26.1) ≥30: 241 (38.3)	W: 28 (4.5) B: 179 (28.5) A: 12 (1.9) H: 357 (56.8) O1: 52 (8.3)	No or some HS: 145 (23.1) HS graduate: 483 (76.9)	NR	NR	Non-US born: 188 (29.9) WIC: 376 (59.9)	NR	NR	V: 387 (61.6) C: 241 (38.4)	Multiple births: 0 NICU: 0
Uscher-Pines, 2020, 31629118	26.5 (5.1)	<30: 177 (94.7) ≥30: 10 (5.3)	W: 180 (96.3) H: 3 (1.6)	No or some HS: 84 (44.9) HS graduate: 103 (55.1)	NR	Income ≤$14,999/yr: 30 (16.4) Income $15,000∓$24,999/yr: 21 (11.2) Income $25,000∓$39,999/yr: 24 (12.8) Income $40,000∓$54,999/yr: 28 (15) Income 55,000∓$79,999/yr: 35 (18.7) Income ≥$80,000/yr: 28 (15)	Public insurance: 92 (49.2)	NR	HTN: 10 (5.3) DM: 2 (1.1)	V: 106 (56.7) C: 81 (43.3)	Multiple births: 0 Stillbirth: 0 Spontaneous or induced abortion: 0 Preterm birth: 26 (13.9) NICU: 0
Rutledge, 2016, 27350389	<18: 800 (12.2) 18–35: 5331 (81.3) >35: 426 (6.5)	NR	W: 3862 (58.9) B: 2406 (36.7) A: 118 (1.8) H: 898 (13.7)	High school or less: 29 (44.9) Missing data: 2400 (36.6)	NR	NR	NR	Substance use disorder: 564 (8.6)	NR	NR	Multiple births 0 (0) Stillbirth 0 (0)
Tsai, 2011, 21365543	26.3	NR	NR	NR	NR	NR	NR	NR	NR	NR	NR
Mendez-Figueroa, 2014, 24481876	29.8 (6.2)	29.9 (7.7)	W: 101 (26) B: 55 (14.2) A: 37 (9.5) H: 156 (40.2) O1: 36 (9.3)	NR	NR	NR	Language discordance with provider: (Different primary languages): 134 (34.5) Medicaid: Public funding 288 (74.2)	NR	GD: GDM 388 (100)	NR	Multiple births: 6 (1.5)
Clark, 2009, 19268878	≥ 30 y: 173 (77.6)	≥ 30 (kg/m²): 73 (32.7)	W: 137 (61.4)	Postsecondary 182 (81.6)	NR	NR	NR	NR	GD: 223 (100)	V: 61.4 C: 38.6	Stillbirth 0 (0) Preterm birth 27 (12.1)
Shea, 2011, 21466755	33.7 (5)	27.1 (6.3) Antepartum Unknown: 28 (10.7) Normal: 104 (39.7) Overweight: 64 (24.4) With obesity: 66 (25.2)	NR	NR	NR	Missing: 3 (1.1) SES1 (lowest): 67 (25.6) SES 2: 44 (16.8) SES 3: 57 (21.8) SES 4: 51 (19.5) SES 5 (highest): 40 (15.3)	NR	NR	HDP: 20 (7.6) GD: 262 (100) PE: 13 (5)	V: 165 (63) C: 97 (37)	Multiple births: 8 (3.1)
Martinez-Brockman, 2018, 29325660	26.8 (5.6)	28 (7.4) Antepartum	H: 127 (74.7) O1: 43 (25.3)	Less than or some HS: 22 (15.3) HS graduate: 62 (43.1) More than HS: 60 (41.7)	NR	Income ≤$1,000/mo: 41 (24.1) Income ≥$1,000/mo: 35 (20.6) Don’t know/refused: 94 (55.3)	SNAP: 81 (47.9) WIC: 174 (100)	NR	NR	NR	Multiple births: 0 Spontaneous or induced abortion: 0 Preterm birth: 0 NICU: 0
Abbass-Dick, 2020, 32739716	18–30: 82 (37.8) ≥31: 135 (62.2)	NR	NR	Did not attend university: 55 (25) Attended university: 162 (75)	NR	Household income (CAD/yr): CAD ≤60,000: (14.2) CAD >60,000: (85.8)	Not born in Canada: 54 (24.9)	NR	NR	V: 79 (69.9) C: 34 (30.1)	Multiple births: 0
Bender, 2022, 36201773	31.6 (5.8)	Median 32.2 (26.3–38.0)	W: 66 (30.6) B: 114 (52.8) A: 17 (7.9) H: 15 (6.9) O1: 6 (2.8)	NR	NR	NR	Language discordance with provider (unable to communicat e using English-language text messages) 0 (0) Irregular access to the internet: (unable to access a personal cellular telephone with unlimited text messaging) 0 (0) Medicaid: Public or uninsured 98 (45.4)	NR	HDP (Severe PE) 10 (4.6) HTN: (Chronic) 8 (3.7) DM: 33 (15.2)	V: 147 (68.1) C: 69 (31.9)	Multiple births: 0 (0) Stillbirth: 0 (0) Spontaneous or induced abortion: 0 (0) Preterm birth: 0 (0) NICU: 0 (0) Congenital anomalies: 0 (0)
Ahmed, 2016, 26779838	29.6 (6.4) <20: 8 (7.5) 20–29: 42 (39.6) ≥30: 56 (52.8)	NR	W: 72 (67.9) B: 24 (22.6) A: 3 (2.8) H: 4 (3.8) O1: 3 (2.8)	Less than or HS graduate: 34 (32.1) Associate’s degree: 12 (11.3) Bachelor’s degree: 35 (33) Graduate degree: 25 (23.6)	NR	Income ($/yr): <10,000: 15 (14.2) 10,000-$24,999: 15 (14.2) $25,000-$49,999: 14 (13.2) ≥$50,000: 62 (58.5)	NR	NR	NR	V: 78 (73.6) C: 28 (26.4)	Multiple births: 0 Stillbirth: 0 Spontaneous or induced abortion: 0 Preterm birth: 0 NICU: 0
Domingo, 2022, 35237835	32.6 (5.84)	34.7 (5.81)	W: 8 (3.3) B: 37 (15) A: 29 (11.8) H: 172 (69.9)	NR	Employed: 67 (27.2) Unemployed: 179 (72.8)	NR	Medicaid: Enrolled 228 (92.7) WIC: Enrolled 183 (74.4)	NR	GD: Diagnosed 246 (100)	V: 159 (64.6) C: 87 (35.3)	NR

: Abbreviations: A = Asian, B = Black, BMI = body mass index, C = Cesarean delivery, CVD = cardiovascular disorders, DM = diabetes mellitus, GD = gestational diabetes, H = Hispanic, HS = high school, HDP = hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, HTN = hypertension, NICU = Neonatal intensive care unit, O = Other, OUD = opioid use disorder, PCAP = Prenatal Care Assistance Program, PE = Preeclampsia, PMID = PubMed ID, PP = Postpartum, SD = standard deviation, SES = socioeconomic status, SNAP = Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, SUD = substance use disorder, V = vaginal delivery, W = White, WIC= women, Infants, and Children
: No studies reported on sexual/gender identity status of participants.

Table C-2.1Key Question 2: Extension of healthcare or insurance coverage - summary of design and arm details

Author, Year, PMID	State(s)	Funding (Study Years)	Overall RoB	Inclusion Criteria	Exclusion Criteria	Study N	Focus of Study	Arm	Arm N	Arm Description
Arora, 2018, 29490290	OH	Non-industry (2012–2014)	High	Sterilization as the documented contraceptive plan	Sterilized before study or died	1184	Contraceptive care	More comprehensive insurance	154	Private insurance
Arora, 2018, 29490290	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	Less comprehensive insurance	1030	Medicaid insurance
Austin, 2022, 34974107	20 states	Non-industry (2009–2018)	Modera te	Age>18yr Income <138% FPL	NR	82728	General PP care	More comprehensive insurance coverage	51200	Medicaid expansion states
Austin, 2022, 34974107	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	Less comprehensive insurance coverage	31528	Medicaid non-expansion states
Brant, 2021, 34619694	OH	Non-industry (2015–2019)	Modera te	Gestational age >20wk	Birth outcome not a liveborn neon ate	8516	Contraceptive care	More comprehensive access to care	2129	Law that required hospitals to offer LARC placement after delivery (2017–2019)
Brant, 2021, 34619694	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	Less comprehensive access to care	6387	No law that required hospitals to offer after delivery (2015–2017)
Caudillo, 2022, 35488950	16 states	Non-industry (2012–2017)	Modera te	NR	NR	47109	Contraceptive care	More comprehensive insurance	2504	Delaware (After Delaware Contraceptive Access Now (DelCAN) initiative)
Caudillo, 2022, 35488950	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	Less comprehensive insurance	44605	15 other states (no Delaware Contraceptive Access Now (DelCAN) initiative)
Cilenti, 2015, 25627330	NC	Non-industry (2009–2010)	Modera te	Delivery covered by NC Medicaid	NR	1969	General PP care	More comprehensive insurance	1007	Before change in Medicaid policy reducing reimbursement rates for maternity care coordination by 19%
Cilenti, 2015, 25627330	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	Less comprehensive insurance	962	After change in Medicaid policy reducing reimbursement rates for maternity care coordination by 19%
DeSisto, 2020, 32335806	Wl	Non-industry (2011–2015)	Modera te	Live births. Medicaid.	NR	105718	General PP care	More comprehensive insurance	79172	Continuous Medicaid eligibility
DeSisto, 2020, 32335806	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	Less comprehensive insurance	26546	Pregnancy-only Medicaid eligibility
Dunlop, 2020, 32958368	OH	Non-industry (2011–2015)	Modera te	Age 20–44 yr Medicaid	Medicaid eligibility based on disability	138426	Contraceptive care	More comprehensive insurance	54477	After Medicaid expansion (2014–2015)
Dunlop, 2020, 32958368	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	Less comprehensive insurance	83949	Before Medicaid expansion (2011–2013)
Eliason, 2021, 34870677	15 states	Non-industry (2011–2018)	Modera te	Age>18yr Income 100%-138% of FPL	NR	5034	General PP care	More comprehensive insurance	3389	Medicaid expansion states
Eliason, 2021, 34870677	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	Less comprehensive insurance	1645	Medicaid non-expansion states
Eliason, 2022, 35259409	11 states	Non-industry (2012–2019)	Modera te	Age>18yr Income <138% FPL	NR	34598	General PP care	More comprehensive insurance	25781	Medicaid expansion states
Eliason, 2022, 35259409	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	Less comprehensive insurance	8817	Medicaid non-expansion states
Gordon, 2020, 31905073	CO, UT	Non-industry (2013–2015)	Modera te	Age>19yr Live birth	NR	66672	General PP care	More comprehensive insurance	42144	CO (after Medicaid expansion)
Gordon, 2020, 31905073	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	Less comprehensive insurance	24528	UT (no Medicaid expansion)
Koch, 2022, 35588793	MO	NR(2017–2019)	▪	Gestational age >24wk	NR	6233	Contraceptive care	More comprehensive insurance	3128	After policy change for separate LARC reimbursement
Koch, 2022, 35588793	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	Less comprehensive insurance	3105	Before policy change for separate LARC reimbursement
Kozhimannil 2011, 21485419	MA	Non-industry (2001–2007)	Modera te	NR	NR	2509	General/ Overall PP care	More comprehensive insurance	2280	Full coverage of AP and PP care, no cost sharing beyond office visit and hospitalization copayments. Out-patient visit copayments $5-$25 (median $15). Hospitalization copayments $0-$1000 (median $250).
Kozhimannil 2011, 21485419	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	Less comprehensive insurance	229	Annual deductible $500-$2000 for individuals and $1000-$4000 for families. Out-of-pocket maximum $2000-$4000 for individuals and $4000-$8000 for families.
Kramer, 2021, 33849768	Wl	Non-industry (2016–2017)	Modera te	Overall/general PP/ pregnant population Medicaid	NR	45200	Contraceptive care	More comprehensive insurance	22405	After unbundling (separate or additional reimbursement for immediate PP LARC)
Kramer, 2021, 33849768	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	Less comprehensive insurance	22795	Before unbundling (no separate or additional reimbursement for immediate PP LARC)
Liberty, 2020, 31846612	SC	Non-industry (2010–2017)	Modera te	Gestational age ≥ 23 wk Singleton pregnancy	Births covered by Emergency Medicaid	164004	Contraceptive care	More comprehensive insurance	108430	After policy covering immediate PP LARC (2013–2017)
Liberty, 2020, 31846612	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	Less comprehensive insurance	55574	Before policy covering immediate PP LARC (2010–2012)
Margerison, 2021, 34606358	18 states	Non-industry (2012–2018)	Modera te	Age>18yr Household income <137%of FPL	NR	56965	General/ Overall PP care	More comprehensive insurance	NR	Medicaid expansion states
Margerison, 2021, 34606358	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	Less comprehensive insurance	NR	Medicaid non-expansion states
Myerson, 2020, 33136489	13 states	NR(2011–2017)	Modera te	Household income <138%of FPL Live birth	NR	15059	Contraceptive care	More comprehensive insurance	9135	Medicaid expansion states
Myerson, 2020, 33136489	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	Less comprehensive insurance	5924	Medicaid non-expansion states
Okoroh, 2018, 29530670	I A, LA	NR(2013–2015)	Modera te	Medicaid	NR	57894	Contraceptive care	More comprehensive insurance	NR	After Medicaid expansion (2014–2015)
Okoroh, 2018, 29530670	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	Less comprehensive insurance	NR	Before Medicaid expansion (2013–2014)
Pace, 2022, 34908011	MA, ME	Non-industry (2009–2015)	High	Age 13–45 yr Medicaid insurance	NR	776853	General PP care	More comprehensive insurance	691867	Massachusetts (after Medicaid expansion)
Pace, 2022, 34908011	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	Less comprehensive insurance	84986	Maine (after Medicaid contraction)
Redd, 2019, 30484739	OK, Wl, MD, MN, MO, NY, OR, PA, WA	Non-industry (2007–2013)	Modera te	Live birth	NR	75082	Contraceptive care	More comprehensive insurance	19882	Transition from the Medicaid 1115 waiver, which allowed states to expand eligibility to some individuals otherwise ineligible Medicaid coverage, to the State Plan Amendment, which provides contraceptive care to all
Redd, 2019, 30484739	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	Less comprehensive insurance	55200	Maintenance of the Medicaid 1115 waiver, which allowed states to expand eligibility to some individuals otherwise ineligible Medicaid coverage
Rodriguez, 2008, 18692614	OR	NR (2000–2006)	Modera te	Convenience sample based on available billing data	NR	11526	Contraceptive care	More comprehensive insurance	7832	Before policy requiring undocumented immigrants and legal immigrants within 5 years of immigration with Emergency Medicaid to pay for sterilization following vaginal delivery
Rodriguez, 2008, 18692614	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	Less comprehensive insurance	3694	After policy requiring undocumented immigrants and legal immigrants within 5 years of immigration with Emergency Medicaid to pay for sterilization following vaginal delivery
Rodriguez, 2021, 34910148	OR, SC	Non-industry (2014–2019)	Modera te	Age 15–44 yr Low-income, noncitizen, Emergency Medicaid.	LARC	27667	General PP care	More comprehensive insurance	15465	Oregon (after Medicaid expansion)
Rodriguez, 2021, 34910148	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	General PP care	Less comprehensive insurance	12202	South Carolina (no Medicaid expansion)
Schuster, 2022, 34670222	MO, NE, OK, UT, WY	Non-industry (2012–2015)	Modera te	Family income <100%or>400% of FPL	Uninsured for pregnancy	9472	General/ Overall PP care	More comprehensive insurance	4797	After Medicaid expansion (2014–2015)
Schuster, 2022, 34670222	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	Less comprehensive insurance	4675	Before Medicaid expansion (2012–2013)
Smith, 2021, 34109490	GA	NR(2015–2017)	Modera te	Age <44 yr	NR	5648	Contraceptive care	More comprehensive insurance	3683	After Medicaid policy covering inpatient LARC (2016–2017)
Smith, 2021, 34109490	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	Less comprehensive insurance	1965	Before Medicaid policy covering inpatient LARC (2015)
Steenland, 2021a, 33523747	SC	Non-industry (2010–2014)	Modera te	Age 12–50 yr Births covered by South Carolina Medicaid	NR	154163	Contraceptive care	More comprehensive insurance	NR	After Medicaid policy of payment for immediate PP LARC (Feb 2012–2014)
Steenland, 2021a, 33523747	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	Less comprehensive insurance	NR	Before Medicaid policy of payment for immediate PP LARC (2011-Jan 2012)
Steenland, 2021 b, 35977301	AR	Industry (2013–2015)	High	Age>19yr	NR	50364	General PP care	More comprehensive insurance	40785	After Medicaid expansion (2014–2015)
Steenland, 2021 b, 35977301	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	Less comprehensive insurance	9579	Before Medicaid expansion (2013)
Symum, 2022, 35628011	FL	Not funded (2010–2017)	Modera te	Hospital delivery	NR	1454699	General PP care	More comprehensive insurance	662981	After Statewide Mandatory Medicaid Managed Care (2014–2017)
Symum, 2022, 35628011	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	Less comprehensive insurance	791718	Before Statewide Mandatory Medicaid Managed Care (2010–2014)
Taylor, 2020, 31397625	NC	Non-industry (2014–2015)	Modera te	Age>18yr Gestational age <42wk Live birth	Insurance not commercial, Medicaid, or uninsured	9613	General/ Overall PP care	Commercial insurance	4441	NR
	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	Medicaid insurance	4990	NR
	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	No insurance	182	NR
Wang, 2022, 35592081	TX	NR(2019–2020)	High	Age 14–48 yr Singleton pregnancy	NR	8876	General PP care	More comprehensive insurance	5411	After Families First Coronavirus Response Act (2020)
Wang, 2022, 35592081	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	▪	Less comprehensive insurance	3465	Before Families First Coronavirus Response Act (2019)

: Abbreviations: AP = antepartum, FPL = federal poverty limit, LARC = long-acting reversible contraception, NR = not reported, PMID = PubMed ID, PP = postpartum, RoB = risk of bias
: All studies were retrospective nonrandomized comparative studies (NRCSs).

Table C-2.2Key Question 2: Extension of healthcare or insurance coverage – summary of sample details

Author, Year, PMID	Age in Years, Mean (SD) or as Specified	BMI, Mean (SD) or as Specified	Race, N (%)	Educational Attainment in Years, Mean (SD) or as Specified	Employment Status	SES	Miscellaneous N (%)	Chronic Conditions	Delivery Type	Offspring Characteristics
Arora, 2018, 29490290	30 (5.4)	NR	W: 363 (30.7) B: 592 (50.0) A: 10 (0.9) H: 186 (15.7) O: 33 (2.8)	No college: 785 (66.3) Some college: 399 (33.7)	NR	NR	Medicaid: 1030 (87)	NR	V: 698 (59.0) C: 486 (41.0)	Preterm birth: 234 (19.8)
Austin, 2022, 34974107	18–24: (44.8) 25–29: (28.3) 30–34: (16.9) >35: (9.9)	NR	W: (43.2) B: (20.5) H: (28.9) O1: (7.5)	Less than HS (26.5) HS diploma or GED (38.9) Some college (28.1) College degree or more (6.5)	NR	NR	Medicaid: (74.2)	NR	NR	NR
Brant, 2021, 34619694	30.3 (5.5)	32.6 (6.8)	W: 5526 (64.5) B:1592 (18.7) H: 459 (5.4) O: 939 (11.4)	NR	NR	NR	Medicaid: 2840 (33.3)	HTN: 768 (9)	V: 5902 (69.3) C: 2614 (30.7)	Stillbirth: 0 Spontaneous or induced abortion: 0 Preterm birth: 695 (8.2) Neonatal death: 0
Caudillo, 2022, 35488950	<20: (5.9) 20–24: (20.7) 25–29: (30.5) 30–34: (28.3) ≥35: (14.4)	NR	W: (61.9) B: (13.2) A: (4.6) H: (16.3) O1: (4.0)	<HS (13.3) HS (23.6) Some college (28.8) Bachelors or more (34.3)	NR	NR	Medicaid: (42.8)	NR	V: (67.9) C: (32.1)	NR
Cilenti, 2015, 25627330	NR	NR	NR	NR	NR	NR	Medicaid: NC Medicaid: 1969 (100)	NR	NR	NR
DeSisto, 2020, 32335806	<20: (11) 20–24: (31.7) 25–29: (29.6) 30–34: (18.5) >35: (9.3)	NR	W: (55.6) B: (17.4) A: (13.4) H: (13.7)	<High school/GED (19.8) High school diploma/GED (38.9) >High school/GED (40.8) Unknown (0.6)	NR	NR	Medicaid: (100)	HDP: Gestational HTN (5.3) HTN: Prepregnancy HNT (2.3) GD: (6.6) DM: Prepregnancy diabetes (1.2)	V: (74.4) C: (25.6)	Multiple births (1.2) Stillbirth (0) Spontaneous or induced abortion (0) Preterm birth (9.3)
Dunlop, 2020, 32958368	20–24: 61270 (44.3) 25–34: 67255 (48.6) 35–44: 9901 (7.1)	NR	W: 87855 (63.5) B: 41313 (29.8) H: 6121 (4.4) O: 3151 (2.3)	Unknown: 1252 (0.9) College graduate: 6663 (4.8) Some college: 54028 (39) HS graduate: 52157 (37.5) Less than HS graduate: 24326 (17.8)	NR	NR	Medicaid: Ohio Medicaid: NR (100)	NR	NR	NR
Eliason, 2021, 34870677	18–24: 1862 (37) 25–30: 1483 (29.5) 30–34: 1066 (21.2) 35–39: 479 (9.5) ≥40: 143 (2.8)	NR	W: 2413 (47.9) B: 730 (14.5) A: 144 (2.8) H: 973 (19.3) O1: 315 (6.3)	HS or less 2472 (49.1) More than HS 2494 (49.5) Missing 68 (1.4)	NR	NR	NR	NR	NR	NR
Eliason, 2022, 35259409	18–24: (49.6) 25–29: (28.9) 30–34: (14.3) 35–39: (5.6) ≥40: (1.6)	NR	W: (65.5) B: (14.7) A: (1.5) H: (12.8) O1: (4.6)	HS or less (56.1) More than HS (42.8) NR (1.1)	NR	NR	NR	NR	NR	NR
Gordon, 2020, 31905073	19–24: 27395 (41.1) 25–39: 38125 (57.2) 40–53: 1152 (1.7)	NR	NR	NR	NR	NR	Medicaid: 66672 (100)	NR	NR	Stillbirth: 0 Spontaneous or induced abortion: 0 Neonatal death: 0
Koch, 2022, 35588793	27.6 (5.9)	BMI ≤30: 2910 (46.7) BMI ≤30: 3323 (53.3)	W: 2014 (32.3) B: 3351 (53.8) A: 233 (3.7) H: 265 (4.3)	NR	NR	NR	Medicaid: 3902 (62.6)	NR	V: 3858 (61.9) C: 2354 (37.8)	NR
Kozhimannil, 2011, 21485419	33.0 (95% CI 32.8, 33.2)	NR	NR	NR	Employed: 2509 (100)	Low^: 417 (16.6) Not low^: 2092 (83.4)	Medicaid: 0 (0)	GD: 99 (4)	V: 1658 (66.1) C: 851 (33.9)	Preterm birth: 233 (9.3)
Kramer, 2021, 33849768	<20: 3803 (8.4) 20–24: 12876 (28.5) 25–29: 14639 (32.4) 30–34: 9201 (20.4) ≥35: 4681 (10.4)	NR	W: 22562 (49.9) B: 10517 (23.3) H: 7696 (17) O: 4425 (9.8)	NR	NR	NR	Medicaid: 45200 (100)	NR	NR	NR
Liberty, 2020, 31846612	25.0 (5.4)	NR	W: 83788 (44.7) B: 86869 (46.3) H: 6780 (3.6) O1: 1769 (0.9)	NR	NR	NR	Medicaid: 164004 (100)	HDP: 12354 (6.6) HTN: Chronic HTN 5586 (3) GD: 10072 (5.4) DM: Prepregnancy diabetes 1958 (1)	V: 124451 (66.4) C: 63064 (33.6)	Multiple births: (0) Preterm birth 20447 (10.9)
Margerison, 2021, 34606358	NR	NR	W: 27970 (49.1) B: 9969 (17.5) A: 1196 (2.1) H: 13890 (24.4) O1: 1709 (3) O2: 2507 (4.4)	NR	NR	NR	Medicaid: 31957 (56.1)	NR	NR	NR
Myerson, 2020, 33136489	20–24: 5680 (37.7) 25–29: 4888 (32.5) 30–34: 2900 (19.3) 35–39: 1226 (8.1) 40+: 326 (2.2)	NR	W: 7524 (50) B: 2608 (17.3) A: 1469 (9.8) H: 3459 (23)	<12 years: 3392 (22.5) 12 years: 5605 (37.2) 13–15 years: 4799 (31.9) ≥16 years: 1480 (9.8)	NR	NR	NR	NR	NR	Stillbirth: 0 Neonatal death: 0 Congenital anomalies: 0
Okoroh, 2018, 29530670	NR	NR	NR	NR	NR	NR	Medicaid: 57894 (100)	NR	NR	Stillbirth: 0 Spontaneous or induced abortion: 0 Neonatal death: 0
Pace, 2022, 34908011	NR	NR	NR	NR	NR	NR	Medicaid: (100)	NR	NR	NR
Redd, 2019, 30484739	≤20: 6365 (9) 20–24: 16390 (22) 25–34: 39223 (52) ≥35: 13097 (17)	NR	W: 44084 (59) B: 12631 (17) A: 5357 (7) O1: 12329 (17) O2: NR	Some HS: 12274 (16) HS graduate: 18465 (25) Some college: 20787 (28) College graduate: 23108 (31)	NR	NR	Medicaid: 13862 (18) WIC during pregnancy: 35942 (48)	NR	NR	NR
Rodriguez, 2008, 18692614	26 (NR)	NR	NR	NR	NR	NR	Immigrants on Emergency Medicaid: 6286 (54.5)	NR	V: 8520 (73.9) C: 3006 (26.1)	NR
Rodriguez, 2021, 34910148	29.4 (6) <20: 1172 (4.2) 20–34: 20449 (73.9) ≥35: 6046 (21.9)	NR	W: 1005 (3.6) B: 473 (1.7) A: 1367 (4.9) H: 18408 (66.5) O1: 5759 (20.8) O2: 70 (0.3) O3: 585 (2.1)	NR	NR	NR	Immigrant: noncitizens 27667 (100) Medicaid: Emergency Medicaid Coverage 27667 (100)	NR	V: 20043 (72.4) C: 7624 (27.6)	Preterm birth 2165 (7.8)
Schuster, 2022, 34670222	<25: 2341 (24.5) 25–34: 6 (65.2) ≥35: 1086 (10.3)	NR	W: 20382 (82.7) B: 536 (5.2) O: 1741 (12)	<HS: 614 (5.1) HS: 1997 (18.8) Some college: 3691 (41.1) At least Bachelor’s degree: 3060 (35)	NR	Household income 100–250% Of federal poverty: 6984 (73) Household income 251–400% Of federal poverty: 2488 (27)	Medicaid: 2082 (20.6)	HTN: 449 (3.6) DM: 243 (2)	NR	NICU: 2207 (11.8)
Smith, 2021, 34109490	NR	NR	NR	NR	NR	NR	Medicaid: 4417 (78.2)	NR	NR	NR
Steenland, 2021a, 33523747	24.9 (5.5) 12–19: 23778 (15.4) 20–50: 13 (84.6)	NR	W: 65770 (42.8) B: 65958 (42.9) H: 15584 (10.1) O: 6335 (4.1)	NR	NR	NR	Medicaid: 154163 (100)	NR	NR	NR
Steenland, 2021b, 35977301	27.1 19–24: (44.5) 25–30: (35.5) 31–35: (12.3) 36–50: (8.7)	NR	W: (62.3) B: (24.3) H: (8.6) O1: (4.8)	Less than college (88.2) College or higher (11.8)	NR	NR	NR	NR	V: (66.7) C: (33.3)	NR
Symum, 2022, 35628011	Median (28) <18: 27026 (1.8) 18–30: 858875 (57.2) 30–40: 566371 (37.8) >40: 47722 (3.2)	NR	W: 724174 (48.3) B: 347720 (23.2) H: 329438 (22.9) O1: 79979 (5.3)	NR	NR	NR	Medicaid beneficiaries (54.6)	NR	V: 915390 (61.1) C: 584604 (38.9)	Preterm birth 122566 (8.1)
Taylor, 2020, 31397625	18–24: 2088 (21.7) 25–34: 5698 (59.3) ≥35: 1827 (19)	Under-weight: 94 (1.0) Normal: 3586 (37.3) Overweig ht: 2897 (30.1) With obesity: 2400 (25.0) With severe obesity: 636 (6.6)	W: 2709 (28.2) B: 2593 (27.0) H: 2881 (30.0) O: 1430 (14.9)	NR	NR	NR	Medicaid: 4990 (51.9)	HTN: 269 (2.8) DM: 120 (1.2)	NR	Stillbirth: 0 Spontaneous or induced abortion: 0 Neonatal death: 0
Wang, 2022, 35592081	26.9 (5.5) 14–24: 3107 (35) 25–34: 4704 (53) 35–48: 1065 (12)	NR	NR	NR	NR	NR	NR	HTN: 440 (5) DM: 204 (2.3) Asthma 661 (7.4)	NR	Multiple births: (0) Preterm birth 1934 (21.8)

: Abbreviations: A = Asian, B = Black, BMI = body mass index, C = Cesarean delivery, CV = cardiovascular, DM = diabetes mellitus, GD = gestational diabetes, H = Hispanic, HS = high school, HTN = hypertension, O = Other, PMID = PubMed ID, SD = standard deviation, SES = socioeconomic status, V = vaginal delivery, W = White, WIC= women, Infants, and Children
*: Defined as living in a census tract with either >25% of adults having less than a HS education or >10% of households living below the poverty level.
: No studies reported on sexual/gender identities or substance use disorders.

Bookshelf ID: NBK592638

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Saldanha IJ, Adam GP, Kanaan G, et al. Postpartum Care up to 1 Year After Pregnancy: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis [Internet]. Rockville (MD): Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (US); 2023 Jun. (Comparative Effectiveness Review, No. 261.) Appendix C, Results: Design, Arm, and Sample Details.
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Results: Design, Arm, and Sample Details - Postpartum Care up to 1 Year After Pr...
Results: Design, Arm, and Sample Details - Postpartum Care up to 1 Year After Pregnancy: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
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Appendix References - Partial Breast Irradiation for Breast Cancer
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Quality Table - Interventional Treatments for Acute and Chronic Pain: Systematic...
Quality Table - Interventional Treatments for Acute and Chronic Pain: Systematic Review

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