Last Days of Life (PDQ®)

References

1. American Cancer Society: Cancer Facts and Figures 2024. American Cancer Society, 2024. Available online. Last accessed June 21, 2024.
2. Goodman DC, Morden NE, Chang CH: Trends in Cancer Care Near the End of Life: A Dartmouth Atlas of Health Care Brief. Dartmouth Institute for Health Policy & Clinical Practice, 2013. Available online. Last accessed Dec. 15, 2023. [PubMed: 36441862]
3. Wright AA, Zhang B, Ray A, et al.: Associations between end-of-life discussions, patient mental health, medical care near death, and caregiver bereavement adjustment. JAMA 300 (14): 1665-73, 2008. [PMC free article: PMC2853806] [PubMed: 18840840]
4. Mack JW, Cronin A, Keating NL, et al.: Associations between end-of-life discussion characteristics and care received near death: a prospective cohort study. J Clin Oncol 30 (35): 4387-95, 2012. [PMC free article: PMC3675701] [PubMed: 23150700]
5. Balboni TA, Paulk ME, Balboni MJ, et al.: Provision of spiritual care to patients with advanced cancer: associations with medical care and quality of life near death. J Clin Oncol 28 (3): 445-52, 2010. [PMC free article: PMC2815706] [PubMed: 20008625]
6. Temel JS, Greer JA, Muzikansky A, et al.: Early palliative care for patients with metastatic non-small-cell lung cancer. N Engl J Med 363 (8): 733-42, 2010. [PubMed: 20818875]
7. Hui D, Kim SH, Roquemore J, et al.: Impact of timing and setting of palliative care referral on quality of end-of-life care in cancer patients. Cancer 120 (11): 1743-9, 2014. [PMC free article: PMC4073257] [PubMed: 24967463]
8. Wright AA, Keating NL, Balboni TA, et al.: Place of death: correlations with quality of life of patients with cancer and predictors of bereaved caregivers' mental health. J Clin Oncol 28 (29): 4457-64, 2010. [PMC free article: PMC2988637] [PubMed: 20837950]

The Final Days to Weeks of Life

Providing excellent care toward the end of life (EOL) requires an ability to anticipate when to focus mainly on palliation of symptoms and quality of life instead of disease treatment.[1] Prognostic information plays an important role for making treatment decisions and planning for the EOL. However, the available literature suggests that medical providers inaccurately predict how long patients will live and tend to overestimate survival times.[2,3] This appears to hold true even for providers who are experienced in treating patients who are terminally ill. In a multicenter cohort study of 230 hospitalized patients with advanced cancer, palliative care providers correctly predicted time to death for only 41% of patients. Survival time was overestimated in 85% of patients for whom medical providers gave inaccurate predictions, and providers were particularly likely to overestimate survival for Black and Latino patients.[4]

Providers attempting to make prognostic determinations may attend to symptoms that may herald the EOL, or they may observe trends in patients’ functional status. For more information, see the Impending Death section.

For example, one group of investigators [5] retrospectively analyzed nearly 71,000 Palliative Performance Scale (PPS) scores obtained from a cohort of 11,374 adult outpatients with cancer who were assessed by physicians or nurses at the time of clinic visits. The PPS is an 11-point scale describing a patient’s level of ambulation, level of activity, evidence of disease, ability to perform self-care, nutritional intake, and level of consciousness.

The investigators assigned patients to one of four states:

• Stable (PPS score, 70–100).
• Transitional (PPS score, 40–60).
• EOL (PPS score, 10–30).
• Dead.

Of the 4,806 patients who died during the study period, 49% were recorded as being in the transitional state, and 46% were recorded as being in the stable state. For a patient who was in the transitional state, the probability of dying within a month was 24.1%, which was less than that for a patient in the EOL state (73.5%). The results suggest that serial measurement of the PPS may aid patients and clinicians in identifying the approach of the EOL.

In contrast to the data indicating that clinicians are relatively poor independent prognosticators, a study published in 2019 compared the relative accuracies of the PPS, the Palliative Prognostic Index, and the Palliative Prognostic Score with clinicians' predictions of survival for patients with advanced cancer who were admitted to an inpatient palliative care unit. At study enrollment, the investigators calculated the scores from the three prognostication tools for 204 patients and asked the unit’s palliative care attending physician to estimate each patient’s life expectancy (0–14 days, 15–42 days, or over 42 days). Reasons for admission included pain (90.7%), bowel obstruction (48.0%), delirium (36.3%), dyspnea (34.8%), weakness (27.9%), and nausea (23.5%).[6]

The study found that all four prognostic measures had similar levels of accuracy, except for clinician predictions of survival, which were more accurate for 7-day survival. The authors hypothesized that clinician predictions of survival may be comparable or superior to prognostication tools for patients with shorter prognoses (days to weeks of survival) and may become less accurate for patients who live for months or longer.[6] However, clinician predictions of survival may have been unusually accurate in this study because of the evaluators’ subspecialty experience in palliative care and the more predictable environment and patient population of an acute palliative care unit.

Impending Death

Impending death, or actively dying, refers to the process in which patients who are expected to die within 3 days exhibit a constellation of symptoms.[7] In the final days of life, patients often experience progressive decline in their neurocognitive, cardiovascular, respiratory, gastrointestinal, genitourinary, and muscular function, which is characteristic of the dying process. A number of highly specific clinical signs can be used to help clinicians establish the diagnosis of impending death (i.e., death within days).[8,9]

Impending death is a diagnostic issue rather than a prognostic phenomenon because it is an irreversible physiological process. The ability to diagnose impending death with confidence is of utmost importance to clinicians because it could affect their communication with patients and families and inform complex health care decisions such as:[10,11]

• Hospital discharge.
• Discontinuation of prescription medications.
• Artificial nutrition.
• Use of life support measures.
• Enrollment on clinical care pathways.

Because clinicians often overestimate survival,[2,3] they often hesitate to diagnose impending death without adequate supporting evidence.

One study examined five signs in cancer patients recognized as actively dying. Investigators reported that the median time to death from the onset of death rattle was 23 hours; from the onset of respiration with mandibular movement, 2.5 hours; from the onset of cyanosis in extremities, 1 hour; and from the onset of pulselessness on the radial artery, 2.6 hours.[12]

The Investigating the Process of Dying study systematically examined physical signs in 357 consecutive cancer patients.[9] Among the ten target physical signs, there were three early signs and seven late signs. The early signs had high frequency, occurred more than 1 week before death, and had moderate predictive value that a patient would die in 3 days. Early signs included the following:

• Decreased level of consciousness (Richmond Agitation-Sedation Scale score of –2 or lower).
• Decreased performance status (PPS score ≤20%).
• Dysphagia of liquids.

The late signs occurred mostly in the last 3 days of life, had lower frequency, and were highly specific for impending death in 3 days. Late signs included the following:[9]

• Pulselessness on the radial artery.
• Respiration with mandibular movement.
• Decreased urine output.
• Cheyne-Stokes breathing.
• Death rattle.
• Apnea periods.
• Peripheral cyanosis.

In particular, the high positive likelihood ratios (LRs) of pulselessness on the radial artery (positive LR, 15.6), respiration with mandibular movement (positive LR, 10), decreased urine output (≤200 cc/d) (positive LR, 15.2), Cheyne-Stokes breathing (positive LR, 12.4), and death rattle (positive LR, 9) suggest that these physical signs can be useful for the diagnosis of impending death.[9] Because of low sensitivity, the absence of these signs cannot rule out impending death. A prospective observational study that examined vital signs in the last 7 days of life reported that blood pressure and oxygen saturation decreased as death approached. However, a large proportion of patients had normal vital signs, even in the last 12 hours of life. Moderate changes in vital signs from baseline could not definitively rule in or rule out impending death in 3 days. Therefore, predicting death is difficult, even with careful and repeated observations.[13]

Several other late signs that have been found to be useful for the diagnosis of impending death include the following:[14]

• Nonreactive pupils (positive LR, 16.7; 95% confidence interval [CI], 14.9–18.6).
• Decreased response to verbal stimuli (positive LR, 8.3; 95% CI, 7.7–9).
• Decreased response to visual stimuli (positive LR, 6.7; 95% CI, 6.3–7.1).
• Inability to close eyelids (positive LR, 13.6; 95% CI, 11.7–15.5).
• Drooping of the nasolabial fold (positive LR, 8.3; 95% CI, 7.7–8.9).
• Hyperextension of the neck (positive LR, 7.3; 95% CI, 6.7–8).
• Grunting of vocal cords (positive LR, 11.8; 95% CI, 10.3–13.4).
• Upper gastrointestinal bleeding (positive LR, 10.3; 95% CI, 9.5–11.1).

In conclusion, bedside physical signs may be useful in helping clinicians diagnose impending death with greater confidence, which can, in turn, assist in clinical decision making and communication with families.

Care During the Final Hours of Life

The recognition of impending death is also an opportunity to encourage family members to notify individuals close to the patient who may want an opportunity to “say goodbye.” In the final hours of life, care should be directed toward the patient and the patient’s loved ones. In addition to continuing a careful and thoughtful approach to any symptoms a patient is experiencing, preparing family and friends for a patient’s death is critical. Preparations include the following:

• Acknowledging the symptoms that are likely to occur.
• Articulating a plan to respond to the symptoms.
• Eliciting fears or concerns of family members.
• Assuring that respectfully allowing life to end is appropriate at this point in the patient’s life.

For more information, see the Symptoms During the Final Months, Weeks, and Days of Life section.

Encouraging family members who desire to “do something” to participate in the care of the patient (e.g., moistening the mouth) may be helpful. In the final days to hours of life, patients often have limited, transitory moments of lucidity. Family members should be prepared for this and educated that this is a natural aspect of the dying process and not necessarily a result of medications being administered for symptoms or a sign that the patient is doing better than predicted. Despite their limited ability to interact, patients may be aware of the presence of others; thus, loved ones can be encouraged to speak to the patient as if he or she can hear them.

Educating family members about certain signs is critical. In the final hours of life, patients often experience a decreased desire to eat or drink, as evidenced by clenched teeth or turning from offered food and fluids. This behavior may be difficult for family members to accept because of the meaning of food in our society and the inference that the patient is “starving.” Family members should be advised that forcing food or fluids can lead to aspiration. Reframing will include teaching the family to provide ice chips or a moistened oral applicator to keep a patient’s mouth and lips moist. Finally, the death rattle is particularly distressing to family members. It is important to assure family members that death rattle is a natural phenomenon and to pay careful attention to repositioning the patient and explain why tracheal suctioning is not warranted.[15] For more information, see the Death Rattle section.

For patients who die in the hospital, clinicians need to be prepared to inquire about the family’s desire for an autopsy, offering reassurance that the body will be treated with respect and that open-casket services are still possible, if desired.

Health care professionals, preferably in consultation with a chaplain or religious leader designated by the patient and/or family, need to explore with families any fears associated with the time of death and any cultural or religious rituals that may be important to them. Such rituals might include placement of the body (e.g., the head of the bed facing Mecca for an Islamic patient) or having only same-sex caregivers or family members wash the body (as practiced in many orthodox religions). When death occurs, expressions of grief by those at the bedside vary greatly, dictated in part by culture and in part by their preparation for the death. Chaplains are to be consulted as early as possible if the family accepts this assistance. Health care providers can offer to assist families in contacting loved ones and making other arrangements, including contacting a funeral home. For more information, see Spirituality in Cancer Care.

References

1. Lorenz K, Lynn J, Dy S, et al.: Cancer care quality measures: symptoms and end-of-life care. Evid Rep Technol Assess (Full Rep) (137): 1-77, 2006. [PMC free article: PMC4781080] [PubMed: 17764216]
2. Lamont EB, Christakis NA: Prognostic disclosure to patients with cancer near the end of life. Ann Intern Med 134 (12): 1096-105, 2001. [PubMed: 11412049]
3. Hui D, Kilgore K, Nguyen L, et al.: The accuracy of probabilistic versus temporal clinician prediction of survival for patients with advanced cancer: a preliminary report. Oncologist 16 (11): 1642-8, 2011. [PMC free article: PMC3233300] [PubMed: 21976316]
4. Gramling R, Gajary-Coots E, Cimino J, et al.: Palliative Care Clinician Overestimation of Survival in Advanced Cancer: Disparities and Association With End-of-Life Care. J Pain Symptom Manage 57 (2): 233-240, 2019. [PubMed: 30391655]
5. Sutradhar R, Seow H, Earle C, et al.: Modeling the longitudinal transitions of performance status in cancer outpatients: time to discuss palliative care. J Pain Symptom Manage 45 (4): 726-34, 2013. [PubMed: 22940563]
6. Hui D, Ross J, Park M, et al.: Predicting survival in patients with advanced cancer in the last weeks of life: How accurate are prognostic models compared to clinicians' estimates? Palliat Med 34 (1): 126-133, 2020. [PubMed: 31564218]
7. Hui D, Nooruddin Z, Didwaniya N, et al.: Concepts and definitions for "actively dying," "end of life," "terminally ill," "terminal care," and "transition of care": a systematic review. J Pain Symptom Manage 47 (1): 77-89, 2014. [PMC free article: PMC3870193] [PubMed: 23796586]
8. Domeisen Benedetti F, Ostgathe C, Clark J, et al.: International palliative care experts' view on phenomena indicating the last hours and days of life. Support Care Cancer 21 (6): 1509-17, 2013. [PubMed: 23242388]
9. Hui D, dos Santos R, Chisholm G, et al.: Clinical signs of impending death in cancer patients. Oncologist 19 (6): 681-7, 2014. [PMC free article: PMC4041673] [PubMed: 24760709]
10. Ellershaw J, Ward C: Care of the dying patient: the last hours or days of life. BMJ 326 (7379): 30-4, 2003. [PMC free article: PMC1124925] [PubMed: 12511460]
11. Hui D, Con A, Christie G, et al.: Goals of care and end-of-life decision making for hospitalized patients at a canadian tertiary care cancer center. J Pain Symptom Manage 38 (6): 871-81, 2009. [PubMed: 19811887]
12. Morita T, Ichiki T, Tsunoda J, et al.: A prospective study on the dying process in terminally ill cancer patients. Am J Hosp Palliat Care 15 (4): 217-22, 1998 Jul-Aug. [PubMed: 9729972]
13. Bruera S, Chisholm G, Dos Santos R, et al.: Variations in vital signs in the last days of life in patients with advanced cancer. J Pain Symptom Manage 48 (4): 510-7, 2014. [PMC free article: PMC4197073] [PubMed: 24731412]
14. Hui D, Dos Santos R, Chisholm G, et al.: Bedside clinical signs associated with impending death in patients with advanced cancer: preliminary findings of a prospective, longitudinal cohort study. Cancer 121 (6): 960-7, 2015. [PMC free article: PMC4352117] [PubMed: 25676895]
15. Shimizu Y, Miyashita M, Morita T, et al.: Care strategy for death rattle in terminally ill cancer patients and their family members: recommendations from a cross-sectional nationwide survey of bereaved family members' perceptions. J Pain Symptom Manage 48 (1): 2-12, 2014. [PubMed: 24161372]

Overview

The available evidence provides some general description of frequency of symptoms in the final months to weeks of the end of life (EOL). However, when the results of published studies of symptoms experienced by patients with advanced cancer are being interpreted or compared, the following methodological issues need to be considered:[1]

• Variation in the instrument used to assess symptoms and/or severity of symptoms.
• Variation in the timing of symptom assessment and whether the assessments were repeated over time.
• Population studied in terms of specific cancers, or a less specified population of people with cancer.
• Whether patients were recruited in the outpatient or inpatient setting.
• Whether specialized palliative care services were available.

Results of one of the larger and more comprehensive studies of symptoms in ambulatory patients with advanced cancer have been reported.[2] Ambulatory patients with advanced cancer were included in the study if they had completed at least one Edmonton Symptom Assessment System (ESAS) in the 6 months before death. The ESAS is a patient-completed measure of the severity of the following nine symptoms:

• Anxiety.
• Lack of appetite.
• Depression.
• Drowsiness.
• Nausea.
• Pain.
• Shortness of breath.
• Tiredness.
• Well-being.

Analysis of the changes in the mean symptom intensity of 10,752 patients (and involving 56,759 assessments) over time revealed two patterns:[2]

• The mean scores for pain, nausea, anxiety, and depression remained relatively stable over the 6 months before death.
• Shortness of breath, drowsiness, well-being, lack of appetite, and tiredness increased in severity over time, particularly in the month before death.

In terms of symptoms closer to the EOL, a prospective study documented the symptom profile in the last week of life among 203 cancer patients who died in acute palliative care units.[3][Level of evidence: II] The proportion of patients able to communicate decreased from 80% to 39% over the last 7 days of life. ESAS anorexia, drowsiness, fatigue, poor well-being, and dyspnea increased in intensity closer to death. In contrast, ESAS depression decreased over time. Dysphagia of solids and liquids and urinary incontinence were also present in an increasing proportion of patients in the last few days of life. Less common but equally troubling symptoms that may occur in the final hours include death rattle and hemorrhage.

The following sections summarize some of the common symptoms and potential approaches to ameliorating those symptoms, based on available evidence. A final note of caution is warranted. Symptoms often cluster, and the presence of a symptom should prompt consideration of other symptoms to avoid inadvertently worsening other symptoms in the cluster. For example, a systematic review of observational studies concluded that there were four common clusters of symptoms (anxiety-depression, nausea-vomiting, nausea-appetite loss, and fatigue-dyspnea-drowsiness-pain).[4]

Delirium

Terminal delirium occurs before death in 50% to 90% of patients.[5] Most patients have hypoactive delirium, with a decreased level of consciousness. Agitation, hallucinations, and restlessness may occur in a small proportion of patients with hyperactive and/or mixed delirium. Delirium is associated with shorter survival and complicates symptom assessment, communication, and decision making. Furthermore, it can be extremely distressing to caregivers and health professionals.[6-8] Risk factors associated with terminal delirium include the following:[9]

• Hypoxic encephalopathy.
• Metabolic factors.
• Lack of reversible factors such as psychoactive medications and dehydration.

Safety measures include protecting patients from accidents or self-injury while they are restless or agitated. The use of restraints should be minimized. Reorientation strategies are of little use during the final hours of life. Education and support for families witnessing a loved one’s delirium are warranted.

There are few randomized controlled trials on the management of delirium in patients with terminal or irreversible delirium.[10] Care of the patient with delirium can include stopping unnecessary medications, reversing metabolic abnormalities (if consistent with the goals of care), treating the symptoms of delirium, and providing a safe environment. Agents known to cause delirium include:

• Corticosteroids.
• Chemotherapeutic agents.
• Biological response modifiers.
• Opioids.
• Antidepressants.
• Benzodiazepines.
• Anticholinergic agents.

In a small, open-label, prospective trial of 20 cancer patients who developed delirium while being treated with morphine, rotation to fentanyl reduced delirium and improved pain control in 18 patients.[11][Level of evidence: II]

The onset of effect and non-oral modes of delivery are considered when an agent is being selected to treat delirium at the EOL. Agents that can be used to manage delirium include haloperidol, 1 mg to 4 mg orally, intravenously (IV), or subcutaneously.[12] The dose is usually repeated every 4 to 6 hours but in severe cases can be administered every hour. Chlorpromazine can be used, but IV administration can lead to severe hypotension; therefore, it should be used cautiously.[13] Other agents that may be effective include olanzapine, 2.5 mg to 20 mg orally at night (available in an orally disintegrating tablet for patients who cannot swallow);[14][Level of evidence: II] quetiapine;[15] and risperidone (0.5–2 mg).[16] While no randomized clinical trial demonstrates superiority of any agent over haloperidol, small (underpowered) studies suggest that olanzapine may be comparable to haloperidol.

In addition, a small, double-blind, randomized trial at the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center compared the relative sedating effects of scheduled haloperidol, chlorpromazine, and a combination of the two for advanced-cancer patients with agitated delirium.[17] The investigators screened 998 patients from the palliative and supportive care unit and randomly assigned 68 patients who met the inclusion criteria for having agitated delirium refractory to scheduled haloperidol 1 to 8 mg/day to three intervention groups: haloperidol 2 mg every 4 hours, chlorpromazine 25 mg every 4 hours, or haloperidol 1 mg combined with chlorpromazine 12.5 mg every 4 hours. Rescue doses equivalent to the standing dose were allowed every 1 hour as needed and once at protocol initiation, with the goal of producing sedation with a Richmond Agitation-Sedation Scale (RASS) score of 0 to –2. Dose escalations and rescue doses were allowed for persistent symptoms.

Of the 68 randomized patients, 45 patients were treated and monitored until death or discharge. Patients in all three groups demonstrated clinically significant decreases in RASS scores within 30 minutes and remained sedated at 24 hours. No statistically significant difference in sedation levels was observed between the three protocols. However, the chlorpromazine group was less likely to develop breakthrough restlessness requiring rescue doses or baseline dosing increases. The most common adverse event was hypotension, which was seen in 40% of patients in the haloperidol group, 31% of those in the chlorpromazine group, and 21% of those in the combination group.[17] One patient in the combination group discontinued therapy because of akathisia. The study was limited by a small sample size and the lack of a placebo group. Although all three interventions were effective at controlling agitation, it is worth noting that they controlled agitation via significant sedation, which may not be desired by all patients and/or their families.

Although benzodiazepines (such as lorazepam) or antidopaminergic medications could exacerbate delirium, they may be useful for the treatment of hyperactive delirium that is not controlled by other supportive measures. In intractable cases of delirium, palliative sedation may be warranted. A randomized controlled trial compared the effect of lorazepam versus placebo as an adjunctive to haloperidol on the intensity of agitation in 58 patients with delirium in a palliative care unit.[18] Patients were eligible for the study if they had a diagnosis of delirium with a history of agitation (hyperactive delirium subtype). Once enrolled, patients began a regimen of haloperidol 2 mg IV every 4 hours, with 2 mg IV hourly as needed for agitation. The RASS score was monitored every 2 hours until the score was 2 or higher. At this threshold, the patient received lorazepam 3 mg or matching placebo with one additional dose of haloperidol 2 mg. The primary outcome of RASS score reduction was measured 8 hours after administration of the study drug. Patients in the lorazepam group experienced a statistically significant reduction in RASS score (increased sedation) at 8 hours (–4.1 points for lorazepam/haloperidol vs. –2.3 points for placebo/haloperidol; mean difference, –1.9 points [95% confidence interval, –2.8 to –0.9]; P < .001). Lorazepam-treated patients also required significantly lower doses of rescue neuroleptics and, after receiving the study medication, were perceived to be in greater comfort by caregivers and nurses. No differences in mortality were noted between the treatment arms.

Caution should be exercised in the use of this protocol because of the increased risk of significant sedation. The reduction in agitation is directly proportional to increased sedation to the point of patients being “minimally responsive to verbal stimulus” or conversion to hypoactive delirium during the remaining hours of life.[19] Communication with patients and surrogates to determine goal-concordant care in the setting of terminal or hyperactive delirium is imperative to ensure that sedation is an intended outcome of this protocol in which symptom reduction is the primary intention of the intervention. Intensive evaluation of RASS scores may be challenging for the bedside nurse. Finally, this study examined a single dose of lorazepam 3 mg; repeat doses were not studied and may accumulate in patients with liver and/or renal dysfunction.[18]

In dying patients, a poorly understood phenomenon that appears to be distinct from delirium is the experience of auditory and/or visual hallucinations that include loved ones who have already died (also known as EOL experience). Although patients may sometimes find these hallucinations comforting, fear of being labeled confused may prevent patients from sharing their experiences with health care professionals.[20] Family members at the bedside may find these hallucinations disconcerting and will require support and reassurance. Consultation with the patient’s or family’s religious or spiritual advisor or the hospital chaplain is often beneficial.

Fatigue

Fatigue is one of the most common symptoms at the EOL and often increases in prevalence and intensity as patients approach the final days of life.[21] Fatigue at the EOL is multidimensional, and its underlying pathophysiology is poorly understood.[22] It may be associated with drowsiness, weakness, and sleep disturbance. Scores on the Palliative Performance Scale also decrease rapidly during the last 7 days of life.[23] No clinical trials have been conducted in patients with only days of life expectancy. Methylphenidate may be useful in selected patients with weeks of life expectancy.[24] For more information, see Fatigue.

Dyspnea

Treatment options for dyspnea, defined as difficult, painful breathing or shortness of breath, include opioids, nasal cannula oxygen, fans, raising the head of the bed, noninvasive ventilation, and adjunctive agents.

Pain

The prevalence of pain is between 30% and 75% in the last days of life.[21,29] The assessment of pain may be complicated by delirium. Many patients fear uncontrolled pain during the final days of life, but experience suggests that most patients can obtain pain relief and that very high doses of opioids are rarely indicated.[30] Indeed, the average intensity of pain often decreases as patients approach the final days.[2]

Some patients, family members, and health care professionals express concern that opioid use may hasten death. Several studies refute the fear of hastened death associated with opioid use. In several surveys of high-dose opioid use in hospice and palliative care settings, no relationship between opioid dose and survival was found.[30-33]

The principles of pain management remain similar to those for patients earlier in the disease trajectory, with opioids being the standard option. Because consciousness may diminish during this time and swallowing becomes difficult, practitioners need to anticipate alternatives to the oral route. In one study, as patients approached death, the use of intermittent subcutaneous injections and IV or subcutaneous infusions increased.[34] Both IV and subcutaneous routes are effective in delivering opioids and other agents in the inpatient or home setting. For patients who do not have a preexisting access port or catheter, intermittent or continuous subcutaneous administration provides a painless and effective route of delivery.[35] For a more complete review of parenteral administration of opioids and opioid rotation, see Cancer Pain.

Cough

Cough is a relatively common symptom in patients with advanced cancer near the EOL. In one small study, 33% of patients with advanced cancer who were enrolled in hospice and who completed the Memorial Symptom Assessment Scale reported cough as a troubling symptom.[36] This compares to a prevalence of lack of energy (68%), pain (63%), and dyspnea (60%). The treatment of troublesome coughing in patients in the final weeks to days of life is largely empiric, although diagnostic imaging or evaluation may occasionally be of value. In another study of patients with advanced cancer admitted to acute palliative care units, the prevalence of cough ranged from 10% to 30% in the last week of life.[3] However, simple investigations such as reviewing medications or eliciting a history of symptoms compatible with gastroesophageal reflux disease are warranted because some drugs (e.g., angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors) cause cough, or a prescription for antacids may provide relief. In addition, patients may have comorbid conditions that contribute to coughing. For more information about common causes of cough for which evaluation and targeted intervention may be indicated, see Cardiopulmonary Syndromes.

The cough reflex protects the lungs from noxious materials and clears excess secretions. The reflex is initiated by stimulation of peripheral cough receptors, which are transmitted to the brainstem by the vagus nerve. Activation of the central “cough center” mechanism causes a deep inspiration, followed by expiration against a closed glottis; then the glottis opens, allowing expulsion of the air.[37] The empiric approach to cough may be organized as follows:

• Expectorants increase bronchial fluids and reduce the viscosity of secretions, which improves the likelihood of successfully clearing the material. Guaifenesin is commonly available in over-the-counter cold or cough remedies. A reasonable dose is 200 to 400 mg every 4 to 6 hours.
• Antimuscarinics decrease oral secretions, which may initiate a cough reflex if the patient cannot swallow adequately. For more information, see the Death Rattle section.
• Centrally acting antitussives suppress the putative cough center in the brain stem. All opioids have antitussive properties. Dextromethorphan is available in over-the-counter cough suppressants. Codeine is commonly prescribed initially; if it is not effective, then patients receive a more potent opioid such as morphine. However, evidence suggests that morphine [38] or hydrocodone [39] is preferable.

As discussed in the Dyspnea section, the use of bronchodilators, corticosteroids, or inhaled steroids is limited to specific indications, given the potential risks and the lack of evidence of benefit outside of specific indications.

Constipation

The prevalence of constipation ranges from 30% to 50% in the last days of life.[3,29] The use of laxatives for patients who are imminently dying may provide limited benefit. Such patients often have dysphagia and very poor oral intake. Treatment of constipation in patients with only days of expected survival is guided by symptoms. If indicated, laxatives may be given rectally (e.g., bisacodyl or enemas).

Dysphagia

Functional dysphagia and structural dysphagia occur in a large proportion of cancer patients in the last days of life. Specifically, patients often have trouble swallowing both liquids and solids, which is often associated with anorexia and cachexia. In one study of cancer patients, the oral route of opioid administration was continued in 62% of patients at 4 weeks before death, in 43% at 1 week before death, and in 20% at 24 hours before death.[34] The clinical implication is that essential medications may need to be administered through other routes, such as IV, subcutaneous, rectal, and transdermal. Nonessential medications are discontinued.

Artificial nutrition is of no known benefit at the EOL and may increase the risk of aspiration and/or infections. Instead of tube-feeding or ordering nothing by mouth, providing a small amount of food for enjoyment may be reasonable if a patient expresses a desire to eat. For more information, see the sections on Artificial Hydration and Artificial Nutrition.

Death Rattle

Death rattle, also referred to as excessive secretions, occurs when saliva and other fluids accumulate in the oropharynx and upper airways in a patient who is too weak to clear the throat. Rattle does not appear to be distressing for the patient; however, family members may perceive death rattle as indicating the presence of untreated dyspnea. Thus, the family will benefit from learning about the nature of this symptom and that death rattle is not associated with dyspnea.

Rattle is an indicator of impending death, with an incidence of approximately 50% to 60% in the last days of life and a median onset of 16 to 57 hours before death.[23,40,41] Two types of rattle have been identified:[42,43]

• Real death rattle, or type 1, which is probably caused by salivary secretions.
• Pseudo death rattle, or type 2, which is probably caused by deeper bronchial secretions due to infection, tumor, fluid retention, or aspiration.

In one retrospective chart review, rattle was relieved in more than 90% of patients with salivary secretions, while patients with secretions of pulmonary origin were much less likely to respond to treatment.[43]

The results of clinical trials examining various pharmacological agents for the treatment of death rattle have so far been negative.[44] A small, double-blind, randomized, controlled trial that compared scopolamine to normal saline found no statistical significance.[45] Another randomized study revealed no difference between atropine and placebo.[46] Results of other randomized controlled studies that examined octreotide,[47] glycopyrrolate,[48] and hyoscine butylbromide [49] versus scopolamine were also negative.

Despite the lack of clear evidence, pharmacological therapies are used frequently in clinical practice.[50,51] Among the options described above, glycopyrrolate may be preferred because it is less likely to penetrate the central nervous system and has fewer adverse effects than other antimuscarinic agents, which can worsen delirium. Glycopyrrolate is available parenterally and in oral tablet form. Doses typically range from 1 mg to 2 mg orally or 0.1 mg to 0.2 mg IV or subcutaneously every 4 hours, or by continuous IV infusion at a rate of 0.4 mg to 1.2 mg per day. Repositioning is often helpful. Suctioning of excessive secretions may be considered for some patients, although this may elicit the gag reflex and be counterproductive.

Given the limited efficacy of pharmacological interventions for death rattle, clinicians should consider factors that can help prevent it. In one secondary analysis of an observational study of patients who were dying of abdominal malignancies, audible death rattle was correlated with the volume of IV hydration administered. Patients who received more than 500 mL of IV fluid in the week before death had a significantly higher risk of developing death rattle in the 48 hours before death than patients who received less than 500 mL of IV fluid. Along with patient wishes and concomitant symptoms, clinicians should consider limiting IV hydration in the final days before death.[52][Level of evidence: II] For more information, see the Artificial Hydration section.

Opioid-Induced Neurotoxicity and Myoclonus

Health care professionals need to monitor patients for opioid-induced neurotoxicity, which can cause symptoms such as myoclonus, hallucinations, hyperalgesia, seizures, and confusion, and which may mimic terminal delirium. One retrospective study examined 390 patients with advanced cancer at the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center who had been taking opioids for 24 hours or longer and who received palliative care consultations. The study suggested that 15% of these patients developed at least one symptom of opioid-induced neurotoxicity, the most common of which was delirium (47%).[53] When opioid-induced neurotoxicity is suspected, opioid rotation may be considered.[11]

Myoclonus is defined as sudden and involuntary movements caused by focal or generalized muscle contractions. The duration of contractions is brief and may be described as shocklike. There are many potential causes of myoclonus, most of which probably stem from the metabolic derangements anticipated as life ends. Medications, particularly opioids, are another potential etiology. The reported prevalence of opioid-induced myoclonus ranges greatly, from 2.7% to 87%.[54]

When opioids are implicated in the development of myoclonus, rotation to a different opioid is the primary treatment. In patients with rapidly impending death, the health care provider may choose to treat the myoclonus rather than make changes in opioids during the final hours. Benzodiazepines, including clonazepam, diazepam, and midazolam, have been recommended.[54-56] The anticonvulsant gabapentin has been reported to be effective in relieving opioid-induced myoclonus,[57] although other reports implicate gabapentin as a cause of myoclonus.[58,59][Level of evidence: III] In one small randomized study, hydration was found to reduce myoclonus.[60][Level of evidence: I]

Fever

There are no reliable data on the frequency of fever. A prospective study of 232 adults with terminal cancer admitted to a hospice and palliative care unit in Taiwan indicated that fever was uncommon and of moderate severity (mean score, 0.37 on a scale of 1–3).[61] There was no increase in fever in the 2 days immediately preceding death. In addition to considering diagnostic evaluation and therapeutic intervention, the clinician needs to carefully assess whether the patient is distressed or negatively affected by the fever.

There are no data showing that fever materially affects the quality of the experience of the dying person. While infection may cause a fever, other etiologies such as medications or the underlying cancer are to be strongly considered. While the main objective in the decision to use antimicrobials is to treat clinically suspected infections in patients who are receiving palliative or hospice care,[62-64][Level of evidence: II] subsequent information suggests that the risks of using empiric antibiotics do not appear justified by the possible benefits for people near death.[65]

Catastrophic Hemorrhage

Hemorrhage is an uncommon (6%–14%) yet extremely distressing event, especially when it is sudden and catastrophic.[66] Patients with bone marrow failure or liver failure are susceptible to bleeding caused by lack of adequate platelets or coagulation factors; patients with advanced cancer, especially head and neck cancers, experience bleeding caused by fungating wounds or damage to vascular structures from tumor growth, surgery, or radiation. Patients may also experience gastrointestinal bleeding from ulcers, progressive tumor growth, or chemotherapy-induced mucositis.

The management of catastrophic bleeding may include identification of patients who are at risk of catastrophic bleeding and careful communication about risk and potential management strategies. However, two qualitative interview studies of clinicians whose patients experienced catastrophic bleeding at the EOL suggest that it is often impossible to anticipate bleeding and that a proactive approach may cause patients and families undue distress.[67,68] Furthermore, the lack of evidence that catastrophic bleeding can be prevented with medical interventions such as transfusions needs to be taken into account in discussions with patients about the risks of bleeding.

Another strategy is to prepare to administer anxiolytics or sedatives to patients who experience catastrophic bleeding, between the start of the bleeding and death. However, there is little evidence supporting the effectiveness of this approach;[66,68] the experience of clinicians is often that patients become unconscious before the drugs can be administered, and the focus on medications may distract from providing patients and families with reassurance that suffering is unlikely. Nevertheless, the availability of benzodiazepines for rapid sedation of patients who experience catastrophic bleeding may provide some reassurance for family caregivers. Additionally, having dark towels available to camouflage the blood can reduce distress experienced by loved ones who are present at the time of hemorrhage.

After the death of a patient from a catastrophic hemorrhage, family members and team members are encouraged to verbalize their emotions regarding the experience, and their questions need to be answered.

Palliative Sedation to Treat EOL Symptoms

In rare situations, EOL symptoms may be refractory to all of the treatments described above. In such cases, palliative sedation may be indicated, using benzodiazepines, barbiturates, or neuroleptics. Refractory dyspnea is the second most common indication for palliative sedation, after agitated delirium.[69] For more information, see the Palliative Sedation section.

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The Decision to Discontinue Disease-Directed Therapies

The Decision to Enroll in Hospice

Patients with advanced cancer who receive hospice care appear to experience better psychological adjustment, fewer burdensome symptoms, increased satisfaction, improved communication, and better deaths without hastening death.[17-20] The rate of hospice enrollment for people with cancer has increased in recent years. However, this increase is tempered by a reduction in the average length of hospice stay. Because longer hospice stays are associated with caregivers’ perceptions of improved quality of care and increased satisfaction with care, this finding is especially concerning.[21,22] For more information about hospice, including referral, disparities, barriers to utilization, and financial aspects, see Hospice.

Choosing the Desired Place of Death

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30. Kaye EC, DeMarsh S, Gushue CA, et al.: Predictors of Location of Death for Children with Cancer Enrolled on a Palliative Care Service. Oncologist 23 (12): 1525-1532, 2018. [PMC free article: PMC6292533] [PubMed: 29728467]
31. Stilwell P, Bhatt A, Mehta K, et al.: Preferred place of death in paediatric, teenage and young adult haemato-oncology patients: a retrospective review. BMJ Support Palliat Care 12 (e5): e650-e653, 2022. [PubMed: 32209568]

Ethical Perspectives

Medicine is a moral enterprise. The decisions clinicians make are often highly subjective and value laden but seem less so because, equally often, there is a shared sense of benefit, harm, and what is most highly valued. Occasionally, disagreements arise or a provider is uncertain about what is ethically permissible. For example, an oncologist may favor the discontinuation or avoidance of LST, given the lack of evidence of benefit or the possibility of harm—including increasing the suffering of the dying person by prolonging the dying process—or based on concerns that LST interferes with the patient accepting that life is ending and finding peace in the final days. A provider also may be uncertain about whether withdrawing treatment is equivalent to causing the patient’s death. Conversely, the patient may continue to request LST on the basis of personal beliefs and a preference for potential prolonged life, independent of the oncologist’s clinical risk-benefit analysis.

Individual values inform the moral landscape of the practice of medicine. The potential conflicts described above are opportunities to refine clinicians’ understanding of their beliefs and values and to communicate their moral reasoning to each other as a sign of integrity and respect.[1] As clinicians struggle to communicate their reasons for recommendations or actions, the following three questions may serve as a framework:[2]

• Who makes the decision?
• By what criteria do they make the decision?
• How are conflicts among decision makers resolved?

In the event of conflict, an ethics consult may be necessary to identify the sources of disagreement and potential solutions, although frameworks have been proposed to guide the clinician.[3] The following paragraphs summarize information relevant to the first two questions.

Respect for patient autonomy is an essential element of the relationship between oncology clinician and patient. Respect for autonomy encourages clinicians to elicit patients’ values, goals of care, and preferences and then seek to provide treatment or care recommendations consistent with patient preferences.[4] Autonomy is primarily a negative right to be free from the interference of others or, in health care, to refuse a recommended treatment or intervention.[5] On the basis of potential harm to others or deliberate harm to themselves, there are limits to what patients can expect in terms of their requests. More controversial limits are imposed when oncology clinicians feel they are asked to violate their ethical integrity or when the medical effectiveness of a treatment does not justify the burden.[2]

Perceived conflicts about the issue of patient autonomy may be avoided by recalling that promoting patient autonomy is not only about treatments administered but also about discussions with the patient.[4] It is acceptable for oncology clinicians to share the basis for their recommendations, including concerns such as clinician-perceived futility.[6,7]

The following criteria to consider forgoing a potential LST are not absolute and remain a topic of discussion and debate; however, they offer a frame of reference for deliberation:

• The possibility of forgoing a potential LST is worth considering when either the clinician perceives that the medical effectiveness of an intervention is not justified by the medical risks, or the patient perceives that the benefit (a more subjective appraisal) is not consistent with the burden.
• The goal of forgoing a potential LST is to relieve suffering as experienced by the patient and not to cause the death of the patient.[8] Measures that deliberately seek to end the life of the patient are more problematic.
• There is probably no difference between withholding or withdrawing a potential LST because the goal in both cases is to relieve or avoid further suffering.[9]
• The burden and suffering associated with medical interventions from the patient’s perspective are the most important criteria for forgoing a potential LST. Distinctions between simple interventions (e.g., intravenous [IV] hydration) and more complicated interventions (e.g., mechanical ventilation) do not determine supporting the patient’s decision to forgo a treatment.[10]

Religious and Spiritual Beliefs

Awareness of the importance of religious beliefs and spiritual concerns within medical care has increased substantially over the last decade. National consensus guidelines, published in 2018, recommended the following:[11]

• That all patients receive a screening assessment for religious and spiritual concerns, followed by a more complete spiritual history.
• That all patients receive a formal assessment by a certified chaplain.
• That such information is placed in patient records, with follow-up at all appropriate times, including hospitalization at the EOL.

An interprofessional approach is recommended: medical personnel, including physicians, nurses, and other professionals such as social workers and psychologists, are trained to address these issues and link with chaplains, as available, to evaluate and engage patients. A survey of nurses and physicians revealed that most nurses (74%) and physicians (60%) desire to provide spiritual care, which was defined as “care that supports a patient’s spiritual health.”[12] The more commonly cited barriers associated with the estimated amount of spiritual care provided to patients included inadequate training and the belief that providing spiritual care is not part of the medical professional’s role. Most nurses (79%) desired training in spiritual care; fewer physicians (51%) did.

Evidence strongly supports that most cancer patients desire dialogue about these issues with their physicians, other staff as appropriate, and hospital chaplains, if indicated.[13] About one-half of patients acknowledge that they are not receiving such support from a religious community, either because they are not involved in one or because they do not perceive their community as supportive.[14] Regardless of such support, patients may report substantial spiritual distress at the EOL, ranging from as few as 10% or 15% of patients to as many as 60%.[15] Distress may range from anger at God, to a feeling of unworthiness, to lack of meaning. Such distress, if not addressed, may complicate EOL decisions and increase depression.

Finally, it has been shown that addressing religious and spiritual concerns earlier in the terminal-care process substantially decreases the likelihood that patients will request aggressive EOL measures.[16] In contrast, patients who have received strong support from their own religious communities alone are less likely to enter hospice and more likely to seek aggressive EOL care.[15] It has also been shown that providing more comprehensive palliative care increases spiritual well-being as the EOL approaches.[17]

For more information, see Spirituality in Cancer Care.

Artificial Hydration

The potential indications for artificial hydration in the final weeks or days of life may be broadly defined by the underlying goal of either temporarily reversing or halting clinical deterioration or improving the comfort of the dying patient.[18] Although artificial hydration may be provided through enteral routes (e.g., nasogastric tubes or percutaneous gastrostomy tubes), the more common route is parenteral, either IV by catheter or subcutaneously through a needle (hypodermoclysis).

Although uncontrolled experience suggested several advantages to artificial hydration in patients with advanced cancer, a well-designed, randomized trial of 129 patients enrolled in home hospice demonstrated no benefit in parenteral hydration (1 L of normal saline infused subcutaneously over 4 hours) compared with placebo (100 mL of normal saline infused subcutaneously over 4 hours).[19] There were no differences in survival, symptoms, quality of life, or delirium.

A prospective evaluation of the outcomes of 161 patients with advanced-stage abdominal cancers who received parenteral hydration in accordance with Japanese national guidelines near the EOL suggests there is little harm or benefit in hydration.[20] The median survival of the cohort was 20 days (range, 1–84 days); the mean volume of parenteral hydration was 912 ± 495 mL/day. There were no significant trends in global quality of life, discomfort, or physical symptoms for ill or good; signs of fluid retention were common but not exacerbated. However, patients expressed a high level of satisfaction with hydration and felt it was beneficial. The guidelines specify that patients with signs of volume overload should receive less than 1 L of hydration per day. When the investigators stratified patients into two groups—those who received at least 1 L of parenteral hydration per day and those who received less than 1 L per day—the prevalence of bronchial secretions was higher and hyperactive delirium was lower in the patients who received more than 1 L.[20]

Any discussion about the risks or benefits of artificial hydration must include a consideration of patient and family perspectives.[21] Requests for artificial hydration or the desire for discussions about the role of artificial hydration seem to be driven by quality-of-life considerations as much as considerations for life prolongation.[22] Families may be helped with this decision when clinicians explain that use of artificial hydration in patients with cancer at the EOL has not been shown to help patients live longer or improve quality of life. Additionally, families can be educated about good mouth care and provision of sips of water to alleviate thirst.[23] The oncology clinician needs to approach these conversations with an open mind, recognizing that the harm caused by artificial hydration may be minimal relative to the perceived benefit, which includes reducing fatigue and increasing alertness.[24]

Artificial Nutrition

The following discussion excludes patients for whom artificial nutrition may facilitate further anticancer treatment or for whom bowel obstruction is the main manifestation of their advanced cancer and for whom enteral or total parenteral nutrition may be of value.[25] Furthermore, artificial nutrition as a supplement may benefit the patient with advanced cancer who has a good performance status, a supportive home environment, and an anticipated survival longer than 3 months.[26,27]

The decisions about whether to provide artificial nutrition to the dying patient are similar to the decisions regarding artificial hydration. The American Academy of Hospice and Palliative Medicine (AAHPM) recommends that individual clinical situations be assessed using clinical judgment and skill to determine when artificial nutrition is appropriate. Recognizing that the primary intention of nutrition is to benefit the patient, AAHPM concludes that withholding artificial nutrition near the EOL may be appropriate medical care if the risks outweigh the possible benefit to the patient.[28]

Food should be offered to patients consistent with their desires and ability to swallow. The benefit of providing artificial nutrition in the final days to weeks of life, however, is less clear. One study has concluded that artificial nutrition—specifically, parenteral nutrition—neither influenced the outcome nor improved the quality of life in terminally ill patients.[29]

Providing artificial nutrition to patients at the EOL is a medical intervention and requires establishing enteral or parenteral access. Considerations of financial cost, burden to patient and family of additional hospitalizations and medical procedures, and all potential complications must be weighed against any potential benefit derived from artificial nutrition support.

In discussions with patients, the oncology clinician needs to recognize that the patient perception of benefit is worth exploring; as a compromise or acknowledgment of respect for the patient’s perspective, a time-limited trial may be warranted.[30]

Anti-Infectives

The administration of anti-infectives, primarily antibiotics, in the last days of life is common, with antibiotic use reported in patients in the last week of life at rates ranging from 27% to 78%.[31-34][Level of evidence: III] Because of wide heterogeneity in the measurement of antibiotic use, assessment of symptom response, and lack of comparisons between patients receiving antimicrobials with those not receiving them, the benefit of antimicrobials is hard to define.[31] One retrospective study of 133 patients in a palliative care inpatient unit found that 68% received antimicrobials in their last 14 days of life, but the indication was documented in only 12% of these patients. White patients were more likely to receive antimicrobials than patients of other racial and ethnic backgrounds. Documented symptoms, including pain, dyspnea, fever, lethargy, and altered mental state, did not differ in the group that received antibiotics, compared with the patients who did not. However, the study’s conclusions were limited by the fact that it relied on retrospective chart review, and investigators did not use tools to measure and compare symptom severity in both groups.[34][Level of evidence: III]

An additional setting in which antimicrobial use may be warranted is that of contagious public health risks such as tuberculosis.[35] There is also concern that the continued use of antimicrobials in the last week of life may lead to increased risk of developing drug-resistant organisms.[36]

In general, most practitioners agree with the overall focus on patient comfort in the last days of life rather than providing curative therapies with unknown or marginal benefit, despite their ability to provide the therapy.[31,35-38]

Transfusions

Anemia is common in patients with advanced cancer; thrombocytopenia is less common and typically occurs in patients with progressive hematological malignancies. The decision to transfuse either packed red cells or platelets is based on a careful consideration of the overall goals of care, the imminence of death, and the likely benefit and risks of transfusions. The decision to use blood products is further complicated by the potential scarcity of the resource and the typical need for the patient to receive transfusions in a specialized unit rather than at home.

There are no randomized or controlled prospective trials of the indications, safety, or efficacy of transfused products. It should be recognized, however, that many patients will have received transfusions during active disease treatment or periods of supportive care. Such patients may have notions of the importance of transfusions related to how they feel and their life expectancies.

Several considerations may be relevant to the decision to transfuse red blood cells:

• The response in terms of improvement in fatigue and breathlessness is modest and transitory.[39]
• A significant proportion of patients die within 14 days of transfusion, which raises the possibility that transfusions may be harmful or that transfusions were inappropriately given to dying patients.[39]
• Decisions to transfuse red cells should be based on symptoms and not a trigger value.[40]
• Transfusion of rare blood types or human leukocyte antigen–compatible platelet products is more difficult to justify.[41]

Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation

Broadly defined, resuscitation includes all interventions that provide cardiovascular, respiratory, and metabolic support necessary to maintain and sustain the life of a dying patient. It is important for patients, families, and proxies to understand that choices may be made to specify which supportive measures, if any, are given preceding death and at the time of death. People often believe that there is plenty of time to discuss resuscitation and the surrounding issues; however, many dying patients do not make choices in advance or have not communicated their decisions to their families, proxies, and the health care team. If these issues are unresolved at the time of EOL events, undesired support and resuscitation may result. Studies suggest that this aggressive care is associated with worse patient quality of life and worse adjustment to bereavement for loved ones.[42,43]

Narrowly defined, a do-not-resuscitate (DNR) order instructs health care providers that, in the event of cardiopulmonary arrest, cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR, including chest compressions and/or ventilations) should not be performed and that natural death be allowed to proceed. DNR orders must be made before cardiac arrest and may be recommended by physicians when CPR is considered medically futile or would be ineffective in returning a patient to life. A DNR order may also be made at the instruction of the patient (or family or proxy) when CPR is not consistent with the goals of care.

It is advisable for a patient who has clear thoughts about these issues to initiate conversations with the health care team (or appointed health care agents in the outpatient setting) and to have forms completed as early as possible (i.e., before hospital admission), before the capacity to make such decisions is lost. Although patients with end-stage disease and their families are often uncomfortable bringing up the issues surrounding DNR orders, physicians and nurses can tactfully and respectfully address these issues appropriately and in a timely fashion. Lack of standardization in many institutions may contribute to ineffective and unclear discussions around DNR orders.[44]

References

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3. Goold SD, Williams B, Arnold RM: Conflicts regarding decisions to limit treatment: a differential diagnosis. JAMA 283 (7): 909-14, 2000. [PubMed: 10685716]
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5. The ethics of respect for persons: lying, cheating, and breaking promises and why physicians have considered them ethical. In: Veatch RM: The Basics of Bioethics. 3rd ed. Pearson Education, Inc., 2012, pp 62-83.
6. Blinderman CD, Krakauer EL, Solomon MZ: Time to revise the approach to determining cardiopulmonary resuscitation status. JAMA 307 (9): 917-8, 2012. [PubMed: 22396511]
7. Swindell JS, McGuire AL, Halpern SD: Beneficent persuasion: techniques and ethical guidelines to improve patients' decisions. Ann Fam Med 8 (3): 260-4, 2010 May-Jun. [PMC free article: PMC2866725] [PubMed: 20458111]
8. Olsen ML, Swetz KM, Mueller PS: Ethical decision making with end-of-life care: palliative sedation and withholding or withdrawing life-sustaining treatments. Mayo Clin Proc 85 (10): 949-54, 2010. [PMC free article: PMC2947968] [PubMed: 20805544]
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10. Rhymes JA, McCullough LB, Luchi RJ, et al.: Withdrawing very low-burden interventions in chronically ill patients. JAMA 283 (8): 1061-3, 2000. [PubMed: 10697070]
11. National Consensus Project for Quality Palliative Care: Clinical Practice Guidelines for Quality Palliative Care. 4th ed. National Coalition for Hospice and Palliative Care, 2018. Also available online. Last accessed Sept. 20, 2024.
12. Balboni MJ, Sullivan A, Enzinger AC, et al.: Nurse and physician barriers to spiritual care provision at the end of life. J Pain Symptom Manage 48 (3): 400-10, 2014. [PMC free article: PMC4569089] [PubMed: 24480531]
13. Phelps AC, Lauderdale KE, Alcorn S, et al.: Addressing spirituality within the care of patients at the end of life: perspectives of patients with advanced cancer, oncologists, and oncology nurses. J Clin Oncol 30 (20): 2538-44, 2012. [PMC free article: PMC4827261] [PubMed: 22614979]
14. Balboni TA, Vanderwerker LC, Block SD, et al.: Religiousness and spiritual support among advanced cancer patients and associations with end-of-life treatment preferences and quality of life. J Clin Oncol 25 (5): 555-60, 2007. [PMC free article: PMC2515558] [PubMed: 17290065]
15. Balboni TA, Balboni M, Enzinger AC, et al.: Provision of spiritual support to patients with advanced cancer by religious communities and associations with medical care at the end of life. JAMA Intern Med 173 (12): 1109-17, 2013. [PMC free article: PMC3791610] [PubMed: 23649656]
16. Balboni TA, Paulk ME, Balboni MJ, et al.: Provision of spiritual care to patients with advanced cancer: associations with medical care and quality of life near death. J Clin Oncol 28 (3): 445-52, 2010. [PMC free article: PMC2815706] [PubMed: 20008625]
17. Zimmermann C, Swami N, Krzyzanowska M, et al.: Early palliative care for patients with advanced cancer: a cluster-randomised controlled trial. Lancet 383 (9930): 1721-30, 2014. [PubMed: 24559581]
18. Boland E, Johnson M, Boland J: Artificial hydration in the terminally ill patient. Br J Hosp Med (Lond) 74 (7): 397-401, 2013. [PubMed: 24159642]
19. Bruera E, Hui D, Dalal S, et al.: Parenteral hydration in patients with advanced cancer: a multicenter, double-blind, placebo-controlled randomized trial. J Clin Oncol 31 (1): 111-8, 2013. [PMC free article: PMC3530688] [PubMed: 23169523]
20. Yamaguchi T, Morita T, Shinjo T, et al.: Effect of parenteral hydration therapy based on the Japanese national clinical guideline on quality of life, discomfort, and symptom intensity in patients with advanced cancer. J Pain Symptom Manage 43 (6): 1001-12, 2012. [PubMed: 22651946]
21. Del Río MI, Shand B, Bonati P, et al.: Hydration and nutrition at the end of life: a systematic review of emotional impact, perceptions, and decision-making among patients, family, and health care staff. Psychooncology 21 (9): 913-21, 2012. [PubMed: 22162174]
22. Malia C, Bennett MI: What influences patients' decisions on artificial hydration at the end of life? A Q-methodology study. J Pain Symptom Manage 42 (2): 192-201, 2011. [PubMed: 21444181]
23. McCann RM, Hall WJ, Groth-Juncker A: Comfort care for terminally ill patients. The appropriate use of nutrition and hydration. JAMA 272 (16): 1263-6, 1994. [PubMed: 7523740]
24. Raijmakers NJ, Fradsham S, van Zuylen L, et al.: Variation in attitudes towards artificial hydration at the end of life: a systematic literature review. Curr Opin Support Palliat Care 5 (3): 265-72, 2011. [PubMed: 21738035]
25. Bozzetti F: Total parenteral nutrition in cancer patients. Curr Opin Support Palliat Care 1 (4): 281-6, 2007. [PubMed: 18685376]
26. McCallum PD, Fornari A: Nutrition in palliative care. In: Elliott L, Molseed LL, McCallum PD, eds.: The Clinical Guide to Oncology Nutrition. 2nd ed. American Dietetic Association, 2006, pp 201-7.
27. Orrevall Y, Tishelman C, Permert J: Home parenteral nutrition: a qualitative interview study of the experiences of advanced cancer patients and their families. Clin Nutr 24 (6): 961-70, 2005. [PubMed: 16099552]
28. Statement on Artificial Nutrition and Hydration Near the End of Life. Chicago, Ill: American Academy of Hospice and Palliative Medicine, 2013. Available online. Last accessed May 15, 2024.
29. Torelli GF, Campos AC, Meguid MM: Use of TPN in terminally ill cancer patients. Nutrition 15 (9): 665-7, 1999. [PubMed: 10467610]
30. Dy SM: Enteral and parenteral nutrition in terminally ill cancer patients: a review of the literature. Am J Hosp Palliat Care 23 (5): 369-77, 2006 Oct-Nov. [PubMed: 17060304]
31. Rosenberg JH, Albrecht JS, Fromme EK, et al.: Antimicrobial use for symptom management in patients receiving hospice and palliative care: a systematic review. J Palliat Med 16 (12): 1568-74, 2013. [PMC free article: PMC3868271] [PubMed: 24151960]
32. Albrecht JS, McGregor JC, Fromme EK, et al.: A nationwide analysis of antibiotic use in hospice care in the final week of life. J Pain Symptom Manage 46 (4): 483-90, 2013. [PMC free article: PMC3723720] [PubMed: 23317761]
33. Nakagawa S, Toya Y, Okamoto Y, et al.: Can anti-infective drugs improve the infection-related symptoms of patients with cancer during the terminal stages of their lives? J Palliat Med 13 (5): 535-40, 2010. [PubMed: 20201665]
34. Lopez S, Vyas P, Malhotra P, et al.: A Retrospective Study Analyzing the Lack of Symptom Benefit With Antimicrobials at the End of Life. Am J Hosp Palliat Care 38 (4): 391-395, 2021. [PubMed: 32830525]
35. Ford PJ, Fraser TG, Davis MP, et al.: Anti-infective therapy at the end of life: ethical decision-making in hospice-eligible patients. Bioethics 19 (4): 379-92, 2005. [PubMed: 16222854]
36. Niederman MS, Berger JT: The delivery of futile care is harmful to other patients. Crit Care Med 38 (10 Suppl): S518-22, 2010. [PubMed: 21164391]
37. LeGrand SB, Walsh D: Comfort measures: practical care of the dying cancer patient. Am J Hosp Palliat Care 27 (7): 488-93, 2010. [PubMed: 20801921]
38. Lloyd-Williams M, Payne S: Can multidisciplinary guidelines improve the palliation of symptoms in the terminal phase of dementia? Int J Palliat Nurs 8 (8): 370-5, 2002. [PubMed: 12271257]
39. Preston NJ, Hurlow A, Brine J, et al.: Blood transfusions for anaemia in patients with advanced cancer. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2: CD009007, 2012. [PMC free article: PMC7388847] [PubMed: 22336857]
40. Uceda Torres ME, Rodríguez Rodríguez JN, Sánchez Ramos JL, et al.: Transfusion in palliative cancer patients: a review of the literature. J Palliat Med 17 (1): 88-104, 2014. [PubMed: 24325560]
41. Smith LB, Cooling L, Davenport R: How do I allocate blood products at the end of life? An ethical analysis with suggested guidelines. Transfusion 53 (4): 696-700, 2013. [PubMed: 22519756]
42. Wright AA, Zhang B, Ray A, et al.: Associations between end-of-life discussions, patient mental health, medical care near death, and caregiver bereavement adjustment. JAMA 300 (14): 1665-73, 2008. [PMC free article: PMC2853806] [PubMed: 18840840]
43. Miyashita M, Morita T, Sato K, et al.: Factors contributing to evaluation of a good death from the bereaved family member's perspective. Psychooncology 17 (6): 612-20, 2008. [PubMed: 17992703]
44. Zhukovsky DS, Hwang JP, Palmer JL, et al.: Wide variation in content of inpatient do-not-resuscitate order forms used at National Cancer Institute-designated cancer centers in the United States. Support Care Cancer 17 (2): 109-15, 2009. [PubMed: 18682989]

No Further Escalation of Care

Patients with advanced cancer are often unprepared for a decline in health status near the end of life (EOL) and, as a consequence, they are admitted to the hospital for more aggressive treatments. This complicates EOL decision making because the treatments may prolong life, or at least are perceived as accomplishing that goal. At that point, patients or families may express ambivalence or be reluctant to withdraw treatments rather than withhold them.

One strategy to explore is preventing further escalation of care. The goal of this strategy is to provide a bridge between full life-sustaining treatment (LST) and comfort care, in which the goal is a good death. It has been suggested that clinicians may encourage no escalation of care because of concerns that the intensive medical treatments will prevent death, and therefore the patient will have missed the “opportunity to die.”[1] One study [2] described the care of 310 patients who died in the intensive care unit (ICU) (not all of whom had cancer). For 95 patients (30%), there was a decision not to escalate care. The average time from ICU admission to deciding not to escalate care was 6 days (range, 0–37), and the average time to death was 0.8 days (range, 0–5). The interventions most likely to be withheld were dialysis, vasopressors, and blood transfusions. Fifty-five percent of the patients eventually had all life support withdrawn. The transition to comfort care did not occur before death for the other decedents for the following reasons: waiting for family to arrive, change of family opinion, or waiting for an ethics consultation.

Conversely, some situations may warrant exploring with the patient and/or family a time-limited trial of intensive medical treatments. The patient or surrogates may choose to withdraw all LST if there is no improvement during the limited trial.[1] From an ethical standpoint, withdrawing treatment is equivalent to withholding such treatment. Both actions are justified for unwarranted or unwanted intensive care.

Withdrawal of Ventilatory Support

Two methods of withdrawal have been described: immediate extubation and terminal weaning.[3]

Immediate extubation. Immediate extubation includes providing parenteral opioids for analgesia and sedating agents such as midazolam, suctioning to remove excess secretions, setting the ventilator to “no assist” and turning off all alarms, and deflating the cuff and removing the endotracheal tube. Gentle suctioning of the oral cavity may be necessary, but aggressive and deep suctioning should be avoided. In some cases, patients may appear to be in significant distress. Analgesics and sedatives may be provided, even if the patient is comatose. Family members and others who are present should be warned that some movements may occur after extubation, even in patients who have no brain activity. Such movements are probably caused by hypoxia and may include gasping, moving extremities, or sitting up in bed.[4] Immediate extubation is generally chosen when a patient has lost brain function, when a patient is comatose and unlikely to experience any suffering, or when a patient prefers a more rapid procedure.

Terminal weaning. Terminal weaning entails a more gradual process. Ventilator rate, oxygen levels, and positive end-expiratory pressure are decreased gradually over a period of 30 minutes to a few hours. A patient who survives may be placed on a T-piece; this may be left in place, or extubation may proceed. There is some evidence that the gradual process in a patient who may experience distress allows clinicians to assess pain and dyspnea and to modify the sedative and analgesic regimen accordingly.[5] In a study of 31 patients undergoing terminal weaning, most patients remained comfortable, as assessed by a variety of physiological measures, when low doses of opioids and benzodiazepines were administered. The average time to death in this study was 24 hours, although two patients survived to be discharged to hospice.[6]

Paralytic agents have no analgesic or sedative effects, and they can mask patient discomfort. These neuromuscular blockers need to be discontinued before extubation. Guidelines suggest that these agents should never be introduced when the ventilator is being withdrawn; in general, when patients have been receiving paralytic agents, these agents need to be withdrawn before extubation. The advantage of withdrawal of the neuromuscular blocker is the resultant ability of the health care provider to better assess the patient’s comfort level and to allow possible interaction between the patient and loved ones. One notable exception to withdrawal of the paralytic agent is when death is expected to be rapid after the removal of the ventilator and when waiting for the drug to reverse might place an unreasonable burden on the patient and family.[7]

Regardless of the technique employed, the patient and setting must be prepared. Monitors and alarms are turned off, and life-prolonging interventions such as antibiotics and transfusions need to be discontinued. Family members should be given sufficient time to prepare, including planning for the presence of all loved ones who wish to be in attendance. They need to be given information about what to expect during the process; some may elect to remain out of the room during extubation. Chaplains or social workers may be called to provide support to the family.

References

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3. Marr L, Weissman DE: Withdrawal of ventilatory support from the dying adult patient. J Support Oncol 2 (3): 283-8, 2004 May-Jun. [PubMed: 15328827]
4. Heytens L, Verlooy J, Gheuens J, et al.: Lazarus sign and extensor posturing in a brain-dead patient. Case report. J Neurosurg 71 (3): 449-51, 1989. [PubMed: 2769397]
5. Truog RD, Cist AF, Brackett SE, et al.: Recommendations for end-of-life care in the intensive care unit: The Ethics Committee of the Society of Critical Care Medicine. Crit Care Med 29 (12): 2332-48, 2001. [PubMed: 11801837]
6. Campbell ML, Bizek KS, Thill M: Patient responses during rapid terminal weaning from mechanical ventilation: a prospective study. Crit Care Med 27 (1): 73-7, 1999. [PubMed: 9934896]
7. Truog RD, Burns JP, Mitchell C, et al.: Pharmacologic paralysis and withdrawal of mechanical ventilation at the end of life. N Engl J Med 342 (7): 508-11, 2000. [PubMed: 10675435]

Suffering at the End of Life (EOL)

Palliative Sedation

Palliative sedation may be defined as the deliberate pharmacological lowering of the level of consciousness, with the goal of relieving symptoms that are unacceptably distressing to the patient and refractory to optimal palliative care interventions. In considering a patient’s request for palliative sedation, clinicians need to identify any personal biases that may adversely affect their ability to respond effectively to such requests. Several points need to be borne in mind:

• There is no evidence that palliative sedation shortens life expectancy when applied in the last days of life.[5]
• The goal of palliative sedation is to relieve intractable suffering.
• Discussions about palliative sedation may lead to insights into how to better care for the dying person. For example, requests for palliative sedation may create an opportunity to understand the implications of symptoms for the suffering person and to encourage the clinician to try alternative interventions to relieve symptoms.
• When dealing with requests for palliative sedation, health care professionals need to consider their own cultural and religious biases and reflect on the commitment they make as clinicians to the dying person.[6]

The following questions may serve to organize discussions about the appropriateness of palliative sedation within health care teams and between clinicians, patients, and families:

• What are the indications for palliative sedation?
• Has the patient received optimal palliative care short of palliative sedation?
• What is the intended level of consciousness?
• Will the palliative sedation be maintained continuously until death or adjusted to reassess the patient’s symptom distress?
• What are the plans for discontinuation or maintenance of hydration, nutrition, or other potentially life-sustaining treatments (LSTs)?

Requests for Hastened Death

References

1. Ruijs CD, Kerkhof AJ, van der Wal G, et al.: Symptoms, unbearability and the nature of suffering in terminal cancer patients dying at home: a prospective primary care study. BMC Fam Pract 14: 201, 2013. [PMC free article: PMC3877870] [PubMed: 24373224]
2. Williams AL, McCorkle R: Cancer family caregivers during the palliative, hospice, and bereavement phases: a review of the descriptive psychosocial literature. Palliat Support Care 9 (3): 315-25, 2011. [PubMed: 21838952]
3. Meeker MA, Waldrop DP, Schneider J, et al.: Contending with advanced illness: patient and caregiver perspectives. J Pain Symptom Manage 47 (5): 887-95, 2014. [PubMed: 24035069]
4. Hebert RS, Arnold RM, Schulz R: Improving well-being in caregivers of terminally ill patients. Making the case for patient suffering as a focus for intervention research. J Pain Symptom Manage 34 (5): 539-46, 2007. [PMC free article: PMC2195548] [PubMed: 17616333]
5. Maltoni M, Scarpi E, Rosati M, et al.: Palliative sedation in end-of-life care and survival: a systematic review. J Clin Oncol 30 (12): 1378-83, 2012. [PubMed: 22412129]
6. George R: Suffering and healing--our core business. Palliat Med 23 (5): 385-7, 2009. [PubMed: 19528137]
7. Elsayem A, Curry Iii E, Boohene J, et al.: Use of palliative sedation for intractable symptoms in the palliative care unit of a comprehensive cancer center. Support Care Cancer 17 (1): 53-9, 2009. [PubMed: 18461370]
8. Putman MS, Yoon JD, Rasinski KA, et al.: Intentional sedation to unconsciousness at the end of life: findings from a national physician survey. J Pain Symptom Manage 46 (3): 326-34, 2013. [PubMed: 23219679]
9. Curlin FA, Nwodim C, Vance JL, et al.: To die, to sleep: US physicians' religious and other objections to physician-assisted suicide, terminal sedation, and withdrawal of life support. Am J Hosp Palliat Care 25 (2): 112-20, 2008 Apr-May. [PMC free article: PMC2867462] [PubMed: 18198363]
10. Olsen ML, Swetz KM, Mueller PS: Ethical decision making with end-of-life care: palliative sedation and withholding or withdrawing life-sustaining treatments. Mayo Clin Proc 85 (10): 949-54, 2010. [PMC free article: PMC2947968] [PubMed: 20805544]
11. Swart SJ, van der Heide A, van Zuylen L, et al.: Considerations of physicians about the depth of palliative sedation at the end of life. CMAJ 184 (7): E360-6, 2012. [PMC free article: PMC3328540] [PubMed: 22331961]
12. Won YW, Chun HS, Seo M, et al.: Clinical Patterns of Continuous and Intermittent Palliative Sedation in Patients With Terminal Cancer: A Descriptive, Observational Study. J Pain Symptom Manage 58 (1): 65-71, 2019. [PubMed: 31026509]
13. Hudson PL, Kristjanson LJ, Ashby M, et al.: Desire for hastened death in patients with advanced disease and the evidence base of clinical guidelines: a systematic review. Palliat Med 20 (7): 693-701, 2006. [PubMed: 17060268]
14. Breitbart W, Rosenfeld B, Pessin H, et al.: Depression, hopelessness, and desire for hastened death in terminally ill patients with cancer. JAMA 284 (22): 2907-11, 2000. [PubMed: 11147988]
15. Wilson KG, Scott JF, Graham ID, et al.: Attitudes of terminally ill patients toward euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide. Arch Intern Med 160 (16): 2454-60, 2000. [PubMed: 10979056]
16. Coyle N, Sculco L: Expressed desire for hastened death in seven patients living with advanced cancer: a phenomenologic inquiry. Oncol Nurs Forum 31 (4): 699-709, 2004. [PubMed: 15252426]
17. Mak YY, Elwyn G: Voices of the terminally ill: uncovering the meaning of desire for euthanasia. Palliat Med 19 (4): 343-50, 2005. [PubMed: 15984507]
18. Hudson PL, Schofield P, Kelly B, et al.: Responding to desire to die statements from patients with advanced disease: recommendations for health professionals. Palliat Med 20 (7): 703-10, 2006. [PubMed: 17060269]

References

1. Meier DE, Back AL, Morrison RS: The inner life of physicians and care of the seriously ill. JAMA 286 (23): 3007-14, 2001. [PubMed: 11743845]
2. Granek L, Tozer R, Mazzotta P, et al.: Nature and impact of grief over patient loss on oncologists' personal and professional lives. Arch Intern Med 172 (12): 964-6, 2012. [PubMed: 22732754]
3. Shayne M, Quill TE: Oncologists responding to grief. Arch Intern Med 172 (12): 966-7, 2012. [PubMed: 22732755]
4. Edmonds C, Lockwood GM, Bezjak A, et al.: Alleviating emotional exhaustion in oncology nurses: an evaluation of Wellspring's "Care for the Professional Caregiver Program". J Cancer Educ 27 (1): 27-36, 2012. [PubMed: 22042712]
5. Hamric AB, Blackhall LJ: Nurse-physician perspectives on the care of dying patients in intensive care units: collaboration, moral distress, and ethical climate. Crit Care Med 35 (2): 422-9, 2007. [PubMed: 17205001]
6. Sanchez-Reilly S, Morrison LJ, Carey E, et al.: Caring for oneself to care for others: physicians and their self-care. J Support Oncol 11 (2): 75-81, 2013. [PMC free article: PMC3974630] [PubMed: 23967495]

Purpose of This Summary

This PDQ cancer information summary for health professionals provides comprehensive, peer-reviewed, evidence-based information about patient care during the last days to last hours of life. It is intended as a resource to inform and assist clinicians in the care of their patients. It does not provide formal guidelines or recommendations for making health care decisions.

Reviewers and Updates

This summary is reviewed regularly and updated as necessary by the PDQ Supportive and Palliative Care Editorial Board, which is editorially independent of the National Cancer Institute (NCI). The summary reflects an independent review of the literature and does not represent a policy statement of NCI or the National Institutes of Health (NIH).

Board members review recently published articles each month to determine whether an article should:

• be discussed at a meeting,
• be cited with text, or
• replace or update an existing article that is already cited.

Changes to the summaries are made through a consensus process in which Board members evaluate the strength of the evidence in the published articles and determine how the article should be included in the summary.

The lead reviewers for Last Days of Life are:

• Larry D. Cripe, MD (Indiana University School of Medicine)
• Tammy I. Kang, MD, MSCE, FAAHPM (Texas Children's Pavilion for Women)
• Kristina B. Newport, MD, FAAHPM, HMDC (Penn State Hershey Cancer Institute at Milton S. Hershey Medical Center)
• Andrea Ruskin, MD (VA Connecticut Healthcare System)
• Joanna J. Sharpless, MD (University of California San Francisco)

Any comments or questions about the summary content should be submitted to Cancer.gov through the NCI website's Email Us. Do not contact the individual Board Members with questions or comments about the summaries. Board members will not respond to individual inquiries.

Levels of Evidence

Some of the reference citations in this summary are accompanied by a level-of-evidence designation. These designations are intended to help readers assess the strength of the evidence supporting the use of specific interventions or approaches. The PDQ Supportive and Palliative Care Editorial Board uses a formal evidence ranking system in developing its level-of-evidence designations.

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The preferred citation for this PDQ summary is:

PDQ® Supportive and Palliative Care Editorial Board. PDQ Last Days of Life. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. Updated <MM/DD/YYYY>. Available at: https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/advanced-cancer/caregivers/planning/last-days-hp-pdq. Accessed <MM/DD/YYYY>. [PMID: 26389307]

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