U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

NCBI Bookshelf. A service of the National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health.

Coffin JM, Hughes SH, Varmus HE, editors. Retroviruses. Cold Spring Harbor (NY): Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press; 1997.

Cover of Retroviruses

Retroviruses.

Show details

References

  1. Aboulela F., Karn J., Varani G. The structure of the human immunodeficiency virus type-1 TAR RNA reveals principles of RNA recognition by Tat protein. J. Mol. Biol. 1995;253:313–332. [PubMed: 7563092]
  2. Adhya S., Gottesman M. Promoter occlusion: Transcription through a promoter may inhibit its activity. Cell. 1982;29:939–944. [PubMed: 6217898]
  3. Ahmed Y.F., Gilmartin G.M., Hanly S.M., Nevins J.R., Greene W.C. The HTLV-1 Rex response element mediates a novel form of mRNA polyadenylation. Cell. 1991;64:727–737. [PubMed: 1671761]
  4. Ahmed Y.F., Hanly S.M., Malim M.H., Cullen B.R., Greene W.C. Structure-function analyses of the HTLV-I Rex and HIV-1 Rev RNA response elements: Insights into mechanism of Rex and Rev action. Genes Dev. 1990;4:1014–1022. [PubMed: 2116986]
  5. Alonso A., Derse D., Peterlin B.M. Human chromosome 12 is required for optimal interactions between Tat and TAR of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in rodent cells. J. Virol. 1992;66:4617–4621. [PMC free article: PMC241279] [PubMed: 1602563]
  6. Altaner C., Temin H.M. Carcinogenesis by RNA sarcoma viruses. XII. A quantitative study of infection of rat cells in vitro by avian sarcoma viruses. Virology. 1970;40:118–134. [PubMed: 4312371]
  7. Amendt B.A., Si Z.-H., Stoltzfus C.M. Presence of exon splicing silencers within human immunodeficiency virus type 1 tat exon 2 and tat-rev exon 3: Evidence for inhibition mediated by cellular factors. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1995a;15:4606–4615. [PMC free article: PMC230701] [PubMed: 7623852]
  8. Amendt B.A., Simpson S.B., Stoltzfus C.M. Inhibition of RNA splicing at the Rous sarcoma virus src 3′ splice site is mediated by an interaction between a negative cis element and a chicken embryo fibroblast nuclear factor. J Virol. 1995b;69:5068–5076. [PMC free article: PMC189324] [PubMed: 7609076]
  9. Amendt B.A., Hesslein D., Chang L.-J., Stoltzfus C.M. Presence of negative and positive cis-acting RNA splicing elements within and flanking the first tat coding exon of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1994;14:3960–3970. [PMC free article: PMC358762] [PubMed: 8196635]
  10. Antoni B.A., Stein S.B., Rabson A.B. Regulation of human immunodeficiency virus infection: Implications for pathogenesis. Adv. Virus Res. 1994a;43:53–145. [PubMed: 8191958]
  11. Antoni B.A., Rabson A.B., Kinter A., Bodkin M., Poli G. NF-κB-dependent and -independent pathways of HIV activation in a chronically infected T cell line. Virology. 1994b;202:684–694. [PubMed: 7913275]
  12. Archer T.K., Lefebvre P., Wolford R.G., Hager G.L. Transcription factor loading on the MMTV promoter: A bimodal mechanism for promoter activation. Science. 1992;255:1573–1576. [PubMed: 1347958]
  13. Arrigo S., Beemon K. Regulation of Rous sarcoma virus RNA splicing and stability. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1988;8:4858–4867. [PMC free article: PMC365579] [PubMed: 2850470]
  14. Arrigo S.J., Chen I.S. Rev is necessary for translation but not cytoplasmic accumulation of HIV-1 vif, vpr, and env/vpu 2 RNAs. Genes Dev. 1991;5:808–819. [PubMed: 1827422]
  15. Arrigo S., Yun M., Beemon K. Cis-acting regulatory elements within gag genes of avian retroviruses. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1987;7:388–392. [PMC free article: PMC365080] [PubMed: 3031470]
  16. Arya S.K. Human immunodeficiency virus type-2 gene expression: Two enhancers and their activation by T-cell activators. New Biol. 1990;2:57–65. [PubMed: 1981844]
  17. Arya S.K., Guo C., Josephs S.F., Wong-Staal F. Trans-activator gene of human T-lymphotropic virus type II (HTLV-III). Science. 1985;229:69–73. [PubMed: 2990040]
  18. Ashe M.P., Griffin P., James W., Proudfoot N.J. Poly(A) site selection in the HIV-1 provirus: Inhibition of promoter-proximal polyadenylation by the downstream major splice donor site. Genes Dev. 1995;9:3008–3025. [PubMed: 7498796]
  19. Atwater J.A., Wisdom R., Verma I.M. Regulated mRNA stability. Annu. Rev. Genet. 1990;24:519–541. [PubMed: 2088178]
  20. Baeuerle P.A., Baltimore D. IκB: A specific inhibitor of the NF-κB transcription factor. Science. 1988;242:540–546. [PubMed: 3140380]
  21. Ball J.K., Diggelmann H., Dekaban G.A., Grossi G.F., Semmler R., Waight P.A., Fletcher F.R. Alterations in the U3 region of the long terminal repeat of an infectious thymotropic type B retrovirus. J. Virol. 1988;62:2985–2993. [PMC free article: PMC253737] [PubMed: 2839715]
  22. Ballard D.W., Böhnlein E., Lowenthal J.W., Wano Y., Franza B.R., Greene W.C. HTLV-I tax induces cellular proteins that activate the κB element in the IL-2 receptor α gene. Science. 1988;241:1652–1655. [PubMed: 2843985]
  23. Baltimore D. Gene therapy. Intracellular immunization. Nature. 1988;335:395–396. [PubMed: 3166513]
  24. Baranger A.M., Palmer C.R., Hamm M.K., Glebler H.A., Brauweller A., Nyborg J.K., Schepartz A. Mechanism of DNA-binding enhancement by the human T-cell leukaemia virus transactivator Tax. Nature. 1995;376:606–608. [PubMed: 7637812]
  25. Barklis E., Mulligan R.C., Jaenisch R. Chromosomal position or virus mutation permits retrovirus expression in embryonal carcinoma cells. Cell. 1986;47:391–399. [PubMed: 3768959]
  26. Bar-Shira A., Panet A., Honigman A. An RNA secondary structure juxtaposes two remote genetic signals for human T-cell leukemia virus type I RNA 3′-end processing. J. Virol. 1991;65:5165–5173. [PMC free article: PMC248993] [PubMed: 1716687]
  27. Bartel D.P., Zapp M.L., Green M.R., Szostak J.W. HIV-1 Rev regulation involves recognition of non-Watson-Crick base pairs in viral RNA. Cell. 1991;67:529–536. [PubMed: 1934059]
  28. Battiste J.L., Tan R., Frankel A.D., Williamson J.R. Binding of an HIV Rev peptide to Rev responsive element RNA induces formation of purine-purine base pairs. Biochemistry. 1994;33:2741–2747. [PubMed: 8130185]
  29. Battiste J.L., Tan R., Frankel A.D., Williamson J.R. Assignment and modeling of the Rev response element RNA bound to a Rev peptide using 13C-heteronuclear NMR. J. Biomol. NMR. 1995;6:375–389. [PubMed: 8563466]
  30. Battiste J.L., Mao H., Rao N.S., Tan R., Muhandiram D.R., Kay L.E., Frankel A.D., Williamson J.R. α Helix-RNA major groove recognition in an HIV-1 Rev peptide-RRE RNA complex. Science. 1996;273:1547–1551. [PubMed: 8703216]
  31. Baunach G., Maurer B., Hahn H., Kranz M., Rethwilm A. Functional analysis of human foamy virus accessory reading frames. J. Virol. 1993;67:5411–5418. [PMC free article: PMC237942] [PubMed: 8394455]
  32. Bayer P., Kraft M., Ejchart A., Westendorp M., Frank R., Rösch P. Structural studies of the HIV-1 Tat protein. J. Mol. Biol. 1995;247:529–535. [PubMed: 7723010]
  33. Beg A.A., Baldwin A.S. Jr. The IκB proteins: Multifunctional regulators of Rel/NF-κB transcription factors. Genes Dev. 1993;7:2064–2070. [PubMed: 8224838]
  34. Bellas R.E., Hopkins N., Li Y. The NF-κB binding site is necessary for efficient replication of simian immunodeficiency virus of macaques in primary macrophages but not in T cells in vitro. J. Virol. 1993;67:2908–2913. [PMC free article: PMC237617] [PubMed: 8474179]
  35. Ben-David Y., Lavigeur A., Cheong G.Y., Bernstein A. Insertional inactivation of the p53 gene during Friend leukemia: A new strategy for identifying tumor suppressor genes. New Biol. 1990;2:1015–1023. [PubMed: 2101628]
  36. Béraud C., Sun S.-C., Ganchi P., Ballard D.W., Greene W.C. Human T-cell leukemia virus type I Tax associates with and is negatively regulated by the NF-κB2 p100 gene product: Implications for viral latency. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1994;14:1374–1382. [PMC free article: PMC358492] [PubMed: 8289813]
  37. Berberich S.L., Stoltzfus C.M. Mutations in the regions of the Rous sarcoma virus 3′ splice sites: Implications for regulation of alternative splicing. J. Virol. 1991;65:2640–2646. [PMC free article: PMC240622] [PubMed: 1850037]
  38. Berberich S.L., Macias M., Zhang L., Turek L.P., Stoltzfus C.M. Comparison of Rous sarcoma virus RNA processing in chicken and mouse fibroblasts: Evidence for double-spliced RNA in nonpermissive mouse cells. J. Virol. 1990;64:4313–4320. [PMC free article: PMC247898] [PubMed: 2166819]
  39. Berget S.M. Exon recognition in vertebrate splicing. J. Biol. Chem. 1995;270:2411–2414. [PubMed: 7852296]
  40. Berkhout B., Jeang K.-T. Functional roles for the TATA promoter and enhancers in basal and Tat-induced expression of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 long terminal repeat. J. Virol. 1992;66:139–149. [PMC free article: PMC238269] [PubMed: 1727476]
  41. Berkhout B., Silverman R.H., Jeang K.-T. Tat trans-activates the human immunodeficiency virus through a nascent RNA target. Cell. 1989;59:273–282. [PubMed: 2478293]
  42. Berkhout B., Gatignol A., Rabson A.B., Jeang K.-T. TAR-independent activation of the HIV-1 LTR: Evidence that tat requires specific regions of the promoter. Cell. 1990;62:757–767. [PubMed: 2201451]
  43. Berwin B., Barklis E. Retrovirus-mediated insertion of expressed and nonexpressed genes at identical chromosomal locations. Nucleic Acids Res. 1993;21:2399–2407. [PMC free article: PMC309539] [PubMed: 8506135]
  44. Black A.C., Ruland C.T., Yip M.T., Luo J., Tran B., Kalsi A., Quan E., Aboud M., Chen I.S., Rosenblatt J.D. Human T-cell leukemia virus type II Rex binding and activity require an intact splice donor site and a specific RNA secondary structure. J. Virol. 1991;65:6645–6653. [PMC free article: PMC250733] [PubMed: 1942248]
  45. Bogerd H.P., Fridell R., Madore S., Cullen B.R. Identification of a novel cellular cofactor for the Rev/Rex class of retroviral regulatory proteins. Cell. 1995;82:485–494. [PubMed: 7634337]
  46. Bogerd H.P., Huckaby G.L., Ahmed Y.F., Hanly S.M., Greene W.C. The type I human T-cell leukemia virus (HTLV-1) Rex trans-activator binds directly to the HTLV-1 Rex and the type 1 human immunodeficiency virus Rev RNA response elements. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1991;88:5704–5708. [PMC free article: PMC51946] [PubMed: 1905815]
  47. Bohan C.A., Kashanchi F., Ensoli B., Buonaguro L., Boris-Lawrie K.A., Brady J.N. Analysis of Tat transactivation of human immunodeficiency virus transcription in vitro. Gene Expr. 1992;2:391–407. [PMC free article: PMC6057369] [PubMed: 1282057]
  48. Böhnlein S., Pirker F.P., Hofer L., Zimmermann K., Bachmayer H., Böhnlein E., Hauber J. Transdominant repressors for human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 rex and human immunodeficiency virus type 1 rev function. J. Virol. 1991;65:81–88. [PMC free article: PMC240491] [PubMed: 1985219]
  49. Boral A.L., Okenquist S.A., Lenz J. Identification of the SL3-3 virus enhancer core as a T-lymphoma cell-specific element. J. Virol. 1989;63:76–84. [PMC free article: PMC247659] [PubMed: 2535754]
  50. Bouck J., Fu X.-D., Skalka A.M., Katz R.A. Genetic selection for balanced retroviral splicing: Novel regulation involving the second step can be mediated by transition in the polypyrimidine tract. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1995;15:2663–2671. [PMC free article: PMC230496] [PubMed: 7739546]
  51. Bowers W.J., Baglia L.A., Ruddell A. Regulation of avian leukosis virus long terminal repeat-enhanced transcription by C/EBP-Rel interactions. J. Virol. 1996;70:3051–3059. [PMC free article: PMC190166] [PubMed: 8627783]
  52. Bramblett D., Hsu C.-L.L., Lozano M., Earnest K., Fabritius C., Dudley J. A redundant nuclear protein binding site contributes to negative regulation of the mouse mammary tumor virus long terminal repeat. J. Virol. 1995;69:7868–7876. [PMC free article: PMC189731] [PubMed: 7494299]
  53. Bray M., Prasad S., Dubay J.W., Hunter E., Jeang K.-T., Rekosh D., Hammarskjöld M.-L. A small element from the Mason-Pfizer monkey virus genome makes human immunodeficiency virus type 1 expression and replication Rev-independent. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1994;91:1256–1260. [PMC free article: PMC43136] [PubMed: 8108397]
  54. Brown D.W., Blais B.P., Robinson H.L. Long terminal repeat (LTR) sequences, env, and a region near the 5′ LTR influence the pathogenic potential of recombinants between Rous-associated virus types 0 and 1. J. Virol. 1988;62:3431–3437. [PMC free article: PMC253467] [PubMed: 2841495]
  55. Brown P.H., Tiley L.S., Cullen B.R. Efficient polyadenylation within the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 long terminal repeat requires flanking U3-specific sequences. J. Virol. 1991;65:3340–3343. [PMC free article: PMC240993] [PubMed: 1851882]
  56. Calnan B.J., Tidor B., Biancalana S., Hudson D., Frankel A.D. Arginine-mediated RNA recognition: The arginine fork. Science. 1991;252:1167–1171. [PubMed: 1709522]
  57. Campbell L.H., Börg K.T., Haines J.K., Moon R.T., Schoenberg D.R., Arrigo S.J. Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Rev is required in vivo for binding of poly (A)-binding protein to Rev-dependent RNAs. J. Virol. 1994;68:5433–5438. [PMC free article: PMC236943] [PubMed: 8057425]
  58. Cao Z., Henzel W.J., Gao X. IRAK: A kinase associated with the interleukin-1 receptor. Science. 1996;271:1128–1131. [PubMed: 8599092]
  59. Carlberg K., A. Ryden T., Beemon K. Localization and footprinting of an enhancer within the avian sarcoma virus gag gene. J. Virol. 1988;62:1617–1624. [PMC free article: PMC253189] [PubMed: 2833611]
  60. Caron C., Rousset R., Béraud C., Moncollin V., Egly J.M., Jalinot P. Functional and biochemical interaction of the HTLV-I Tax1 transactivator with TBP. EMBO J. 1993;12:4269–4278. [PMC free article: PMC413723] [PubMed: 8223437]
  61. Challita P.-M., Kohn D.B. Lack of expression from a retroviral vector after transducntion of murine hematopoietic stem cells is associated with methylation in vivo. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1994;91:2567–2571. [PMC free article: PMC43410] [PubMed: 8146155]
  62. Chang D.D., Sharp P.A. Regulation by HIV Rev depends upon recognition of splice sites. Cell. 1989;59:789–795. [PubMed: 2686839]
  63. Chatis P.A., Holland C.A., Hartley J.W., Rowe W.P., Hopkins N. Role for the 3′ end of the genome in determining disease specificity of Friend and Moloney murine leukemia viruses. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1983;80:4408–4411. [PMC free article: PMC384047] [PubMed: 6308622]
  64. Chen B.K., Saksela K., Andino R., Baltimore D. District modes of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 proviral latency revealed by superinfection of nonproductively infected cell lines with recombinant luciferase-encoding viruses. J. Virol. 1994;68:654–660. [PMC free article: PMC236499] [PubMed: 7507183]
  65. Chen I.S.Y., Slamon D.J., Rosenblatt J.D., Shah N.P., Wachsman W. The X gene is essential for HTLV replication. Science. 1985;229:54–58. [PubMed: 2990037]
  66. Chen Z.J., Parent L., Maniatis T. Site-specific phosphorylation of IκBα by a novel ubiquitination-dependent protein kinase activity. Cell. 1996;84:853–862. [PubMed: 8601309]
  67. Cheng G., Baltimore D. TANK, a coinducer with TRAF2 of TNF- and CD40L-mediated NF-κB activation. Genes Dev. 1996;10:963–973. [PubMed: 8608943]
  68. Cherrington J., Ganem D. Regulation of polyadenylation in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV): Contributions of promoter proximity and upstream sequences. EMBO J. 1992;11:1513–1524. [PMC free article: PMC556600] [PubMed: 1373376]
  69. Cherrington J., Russnak R., Ganem D. Upstream sequences and cap proximity in the regulation of polyadenylation in ground squirrel hepatitis virus. J. Virol. 1992;66:7589–7596. [PMC free article: PMC240476] [PubMed: 1279209]
  70. Clemens K.E., Piras G., Radonovich M.F., Choi K.S., Duvall J.F., De Jong J., Roeder R., Brady J.N. Interaction of the human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 tax transactivator with transcription factor IIA. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1996;16:4656–4664. [PMC free article: PMC231465] [PubMed: 8756622]
  71. Cochrane A.W., Jones K.S., Beidas S., Dillon P.J., Skalka A.M., Rosen C.A. Identification and characterization of intragenic sequences which repress human immunodeficiency virus structural gene expression. J. Virol. 1991;65:5305–5313. [PMC free article: PMC249010] [PubMed: 1895385]
  72. Conklin K.F., Groudine M. Varied interactions between proviruses and adjacent host chromatin. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1986;6:3999–4007. [PMC free article: PMC367164] [PubMed: 3025623]
  73. Cordingley M.G., LaFemina R.L., Callahan P.L., Condra J.H., Sardana V.V., Graham D.J., Nguyen T.M., LeGrow K., Gotlib L., Schlabach A.J., Colonno R.J. Sequence-specific interaction of Tat protein and Tat peptides with the transactivation-responsive sequence element of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in vitro. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1990;87:8985–8989. [PMC free article: PMC55085] [PubMed: 2247474]
  74. Corneliussen B., Thornell A., Hallberg B., Grundstrom T. Helix-loop-helix transcriptional activators bind to a sequence in glucocorticoid response elements of retrovirus enhancers. J. Virol. 1991;65:6084–6093. [PMC free article: PMC250283] [PubMed: 1681116]
  75. Cross S.L., Feinberg M.B., Wolf J.B., Holbrook N.J., Wong-Staal F., Leonard W.J. Regulation of the human interleukin-2 receptor α chain promoter: Activation of a nonfunctional promoter by the transactivator gene of HTLV-I. Cell. 1987;49:47–56. [PubMed: 3030566]
  76. Cujec T.P., Cho H., Maldonado E., Meyer J., Reinberg D., Peterlin B.M. The human immunodeficiency virus transactivator Tat interacts with the RNA polymerase II holoenzyme. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1997;17:1817–1823. [PMC free article: PMC232028] [PubMed: 9121429]
  77. Cullen B.R. trans-Activation of human immunodeficiency virus occurs via a bimodal mechanism. Cell. 1986;46:973–982. [PubMed: 3530501]
  78. Cullen B.R. Mechanism of action of regulatory proteins encoded by complex retroviruses. Microbiol. Rev. 1992;56:375–394. [PMC free article: PMC372876] [PubMed: 1406488]
  79. Cullen B.R. Does HIV-1 Tat induce a change in viral initiation rights? Cell. 1993;73:417–420. [PubMed: 8490957]
  80. Cullen B.R., Greene W.C. Regulatory pathways governing HIV-1 replication. Cell. 1989;58:423–426. [PubMed: 2569361]
  81. Cullen B.R., Lomedico P.T., Ju G. Transcriptional interference in avian retroviruses—Implications for the promoter insertion model of leukaemogenesis. Nature. 1984;307:241–245. [PubMed: 6363938]
  82. Cullen B.R., Raymond K., Ju G. Transcriptional activity of avian retroviral long terminal repeats directly correlates with enhancer activity. J. Virol. 1985;53:515–521. [PMC free article: PMC254665] [PubMed: 2982034]
  83. Cullen B.R., Skalka A.M., Ju G. Endogenous avian retroviruses contain deficient promoter and leader sequences. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1983;80:2946–2950. [PMC free article: PMC393950] [PubMed: 6574464]
  84. D'Agostino D.M., Felber B.K., Harrison J.E., Pavlakis G.N. The Rev protein of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 promotes polysomal association and translation of gag/pol and vpu/env mRNAs. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1992;12:1375–1386. [PMC free article: PMC369571] [PubMed: 1545819]
  85. Daly T.J., Cook K.S., Gray G.S., Maione T.E., Rusche J.R. Specific binding of HIV-1 recombinant Rev protein to the Rev-responsive element in vitro. Nature. 1989;342:816–819. [PubMed: 2481237]
  86. David Y.B., Prideaux V.R., Chow V., Benchimol S., Bernstein A. Inactivation of the p53 oncogene by internal deletion or retroviral integration in erythroleukemic cell lines induced by Friend leukemia virus. Oncogene. 1988;3:179–185. [PubMed: 2842714]
  87. Dayton A.I., Sodroski J.G., Rosen C.A., Goh W.C., Haseltine W.A. The trans-activator gene of the human T cell lymphtropic virus type III is required for replication. Cell. 1986;44:941–947. [PubMed: 2420471]
  88. DeFranco D., Yamamoto K.R. Two different factors act separately or together to specify functionally distinct activities at a single transcriptional enhancer. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1986;6:993–1001. [PMC free article: PMC367607] [PubMed: 3023887]
  89. Deng C.-T., Stehelin D., Bishop J.M., Varmus H.E. Characteristics of virus-specific RNA in avian sarcoma virus-transformed BHK-21 cells and revertants. Virology. 1977;76:313–330. [PubMed: 189495]
  90. Derse D. Bovine leukemia virus transcription is controlled by a virus-encoded trans-acting factor and by cis-acting response elements. J. Virol. 1987;61:2462–2471. [PMC free article: PMC255671] [PubMed: 3037109]
  91. Derse D., Carvalho M., Carroll R., Peterlin B.M. A minimal lentivirus Tat. J. Virol. 1991;65:7012–7015. [PMC free article: PMC250818] [PubMed: 1658392]
  92. Desai K., Loewenstein P.M., Green M. Isolation of a cellular protein that binds to the human immunodeficiency virus Tat protein and can potentiate transactivation of the viral promoter. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1991;88:8875–8879. [PMC free article: PMC52613] [PubMed: 1924346]
  93. DeZazzo J.D., Scott J.M., Imperiale M.J. Relative roles of signals upstream of AAUAAA and promoter proximity in regulation of human immunodeficiency type 1 mRNA 3′ end formation. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1992;12:5555–5562. [PMC free article: PMC360494] [PubMed: 1360144]
  94. DiDonato J.A., Hayakawa M., Rothwarf D.M., Zandi E., Karin M. A cytokine-responsive IκB kinase that activates the transcription factor NF-κB. Nature. 1997;358:548–554. [PubMed: 9252186]
  95. Dingwall C., Ernberg I., Gait M.J., Green S.M., Heaphy S., Karn J., Lowe A.D., Singh M., Skinner M.A., Valerio R. Human immunodeficiency virus 1 tat protein binds trans-activation-responsive region (TAR) RNA in vitro. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1989;86:6925–6929. [PMC free article: PMC297963] [PubMed: 2476805]
  96. Drapkin R., Merino A., Reinberg D. Regulation of RNA polymerase II transcription. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 1993;5:469–476. [PubMed: 8352965]
  97. Drysdale C.M., Pavlakis G.N. Rapid activation and subsequent downregulation of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 promoter in the presence of Tat: Possible mechanisms contributing to latency. J. Virol. 1991;65:3044–3051. [PMC free article: PMC240959] [PubMed: 2033665]
  98. Dudley J., Risser R. Amplification and novel locations of endogenous mouse mammary tumor virus genomes in mouse T-cell lymphomas. J. Virol. 1984;49:92–101. [PMC free article: PMC255429] [PubMed: 6317898]
  99. Duh E.J., Maury W.J., Folks T.M., Fauci A.S., Rabson A.B. Tumor necrosis factor α activates human immunodeficiency virus type 1 through induction of nuclear factor binding to the NF-κB sites in the long terminal repeat. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1989;86:5974–5978. [PMC free article: PMC297754] [PubMed: 2762307]
  100. Emerman M., Vazeux R., Peden K. The rev gene product of the human immunodeficiency virus affects envelope-specific RNA localization. Cell. 1989;57:1155–1165. [PubMed: 2736624]
  101. Evans R.M. The steroid and thyroid hormone receptor superfamily. Science. 1988;240:889–895. [PMC free article: PMC6159881] [PubMed: 3283939]
  102. Evans T., Felsenfeld G., Reitman M. Control of globin gene transcription. Annu. Rev. Cell Biol. 1990;6:95–124. [PubMed: 2275826]
  103. Fan H., Baltimore D. RNA metabolism of murine leukemia virus: Detection of virus-specific RNA sequences in infected and uninfected cells and identification of virus-specific messenger RNA. J. Mol. Biol. 1973;80:93–117. [PubMed: 4798989]
  104. Feinberg M.B., Baltimore D., Frankel A.D. The role of Tat in the human immunodeficiency virus life cycle indicates a primary effect on transcriptional elongation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1991;88:4045–4049. [PMC free article: PMC51590] [PubMed: 2023953]
  105. Feinberg M.B., Jarrett R.F., Aldovini A., Gallo R.C., Wong-Staal F. HTLV-III expression and production involve complex regulation at the levels of splicing and translation of viral RNA. Cell. 1986;46:806–817. [PubMed: 3638988]
  106. Feinstein S.C., Ross S.R., Yamamoto K.R. Chromosomal position effects determine transcriptional potential of integrated mammary tumor virus DNA. J. Mol. Biol. 1982;156:549–565. [PubMed: 6288960]
  107. Felber B.K., Hadzopoulou-Cladaras M., Cladaras C., Copeland T., Pavlakis G.N. Rev protein of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 affects the stability and transport of the viral mRNA. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1989;86:1495–1499. [PMC free article: PMC286723] [PubMed: 2784208]
  108. Felber B.K., Paskalis H., Kleinman-Ewing C., Wong-Staal F., Pavlakis G.N. The pX protein of HTLV-I is a transcriptional activator of its long terminal repeats. Science. 1985;229:675–679. [PubMed: 2992082]
  109. Felsenfeld G. Chromatin as an essential part of the transcriptional mechanism. Nature. 1992;355:219–224. [PubMed: 1731219]
  110. Feng S., Holland E.C. HIV-1 tat-trans-activation requires the loop sequence with tar. Nature. 1988;334:165–167. [PubMed: 3386755]
  111. Feuer G., Taketo M., Hanecak R.C., Fan H. Two blocks in Moloney murine leukemia virus expression in undifferentiated F9 embryonal carcinoma cells as determined by transient expression assays. J. Virol. 1989;63:2317–2324. [PMC free article: PMC250650] [PubMed: 2704078]
  112. Fischer U., Huber J., Boelens W.C., Mattaj I.W., Lührmann R. The HIV-1 activation domain is a nuclear export signal that accesses an export pathway used by specific cellular RNAs. Cell. 1995;82:475–483. [PubMed: 7543368]
  113. Fischer U., Meyer S., Teufel M., Heckel C., Lührmann R., Rautmann G. Evidence that HIV-1 Rev directly promotes the nuclear export of unspliced RNA. EMBO J. 1994;13:4105–4112. [PMC free article: PMC395333] [PubMed: 8076606]
  114. Fisher A.G., Feinberg M.B., Josephs S.F., Harper M.E., Marselle L.M., Reyes G., Gonda M.A., Aldovini A., Debouk C., Gallo R.C., Wong-Staal F. The trans-activator of HTLV-III is essential for virus replication. Nature. 1986;320:367–371. [PubMed: 3007995]
  115. Flanagan J.R., Becker K.G., Ennist D.L., Gleason S.L., Driggers P.H., Levi B.-Z., Appella E., Ozato K. Cloning of a negative transcription factor that binds to the upstream conserved region of Moloney murine leukemia virus. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1992;12:38–44. [PMC free article: PMC364067] [PubMed: 1309593]
  116. Frankel A.D. Peptide models of Tat-TAR protein-RNA interaction. Protein Sci. 1992;1:1539–1542. [PMC free article: PMC2142144] [PubMed: 1304886]
  117. Franzoso G., Bours V., Park S., Tomita-Yamaguchi M., Kelly K., Siebenlist U. The candidate oncoprotein Bcl-3 is an antagonist of p50/NF-κB mediated inhibition. Nature. 1992;359:339–342. [PubMed: 1406939]
  118. Fridell R.A., Bogerd H.P., Cullen B.R. Nuclear export of late HIV-1 mRNAs occurs via a cellular protein export pathway. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1996a;93:4421–4424. [PMC free article: PMC39553] [PubMed: 8633082]
  119. Fridell R.A., Fisher U., Lührmann R., Meyer B.E., Meinkoth J.L., Malim M.H., Cullen B.R. Amphibian transcription factor IIIA proteins contain a sequence element functionally equivalent to the nuclear export signal of human immundeficiency virus type 1 Rev. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1996b;93:2936–2940. [PMC free article: PMC39738] [PubMed: 8610146]
  120. Fritz C.C., Zapp M.L., Green M.R. A human nucleoporin-like protein that specifically interacts with HIV Rev. Nature. 1995;376:530–533. [PubMed: 7637788]
  121. Fu X.-D., Katz R.A., Skalka A.M., Maniatis T. The role of branchpoint and 3′-exon sequences in the control of balanced splicing of avian retrovirus RNA. Genes Dev. 1991;5:211–220. [PubMed: 1847346]
  122. Fujisawa J.-I, Seiki M., Koyokawa T., Yoshida M. Functional activation of the long terminal repeat of human T-cell leukemia virus type I by a trans-acting factor. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1985;82:2277–2281. [PMC free article: PMC397540] [PubMed: 2986109]
  123. Fujisawa J.-I., Seiki M., Sato M., Yoshida M. A transcriptional enhancer sequence of HTLV-I is responsible for trans-activation mediated by p40χ of HTLV-I. EMBO J. 1986;5:713–718. [PMC free article: PMC1166849] [PubMed: 3011423]
  124. Fujita T., Nolan G.P., Ghosh S., Baltimore D. Independent modes of transcriptional activation by the p50 and p65 subunits of NF-κB. Genes Dev. 1992;6:775–787. [PubMed: 1577272]
  125. Fung Y.K., Fadly A.M., Crittenden L.B., Kung H.J. On the mechanism of retrovirus-induced avian lymphoid leukosis: Deletion and integration of the proviruses. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1981;78:3418–3422. [PMC free article: PMC319579] [PubMed: 6267589]
  126. Gabuzda D.H., Hess J.L., Small J.A., Clements J.E. Regulation of the visna virus long terminal repeat in macrophages involves cellular factors that bind sequences containing AP-1 sites. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1989;9:2728–2733. [PMC free article: PMC362346] [PubMed: 2548087]
  127. Gait M.J., Karn J. RNA recognition by the human immunodeficiency virus Tat and Rev proteins. Trends Biochem. Sci. 1993;18:255–259. [PubMed: 8212135]
  128. Gautsch J., Wilson M.C. Delayed de novo methylation in teratocarcinoma suggests additional tissue-specific mechanisms for controlling gene expression. Nature. 1983;301:32–37. [PubMed: 6296681]
  129. Gaynor R.B. Regulation of HIV-1 gene expression by the transactivator protein Tat. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 1995;193:51–77. [PubMed: 7648878]
  130. Gilmartin G.M., Fleming E.S., Oetjen J. Activation of HIV-1 pre-mRNA 3′ processing in vitro requires both an upstream element and TAR. EMBO J. 1992;11:4419–4428. [PMC free article: PMC557016] [PubMed: 1425577]
  131. Gitlin S.D., Dittmer J., Reid R.L., Brady J.N. 1993aThe molecular biology of human T-cell leukemia viruses In Human Retroviruses (ed. B.R. Cullen), pp. 159–192. IRL Press, Oxford, United Kingdom.
  132. Gitlin S.D., Dittmer J., Shin R.C., Brady J.N. Transcriptional activation of the human T-lymphotropic virus type I long terminal repeat by functional interaction of tax1 and ets1. J. Virol. 1993b;67:7307–7316. [PMC free article: PMC238194] [PubMed: 8230454]
  133. Godowski P.J., Picard D., Yamamoto K.R. Signal transduction and transcriptional regulation by glucocorticoid receptor-LexA fusion proteins. Science. 1988;241:812–816. [PubMed: 3043662]
  134. Golemis E.A., Speck N.A., Hopkins N. Alignment of U3 region sequences of mammalian type C viruses: Identification of highly conserved motifs and implications for enhancer design. J. Virol. 1990;64:534–542. [PMC free article: PMC249141] [PubMed: 2153223]
  135. Golemis E., Li Y., Fredrickson T.N., Hartley J.W., Hopkins N. Distinct segments within the enhancer region collaborate to specify the type of leukemia induced by nondefective Friend and Moloney viruses. J. Virol. 1989;63:328–337. [PMC free article: PMC247688] [PubMed: 2783259]
  136. Gontarek R.R., McNally M.T., Beemon K. Mutation of an RSV intronic element abolishes both U11/U12 snRNP binding and negative regulation of splicing. Genes Dev. 1993;7:1926–1936. [PubMed: 8405999]
  137. Good L., Sun S.-C. Persistent activation of NF-κB/Rel by human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 Tax involves degradation of IκBβ J. Virol. 1996;70:2730–2735. [PMC free article: PMC190129] [PubMed: 8627746]
  138. Goodrich J.A., Cutler G., Tjian R. Contacts in context: Promoter specificity and macromolecular interactions in transcription. Cell. 1996;84:825–830. [PubMed: 8601306]
  139. Goodwin G.H. Identification of three sequence-specific DNA-binding proteins which interact with the Rous sarcoma virus enhancer and upstream promoter elements. J. Virol. 1988;62:2186–2190. [PMC free article: PMC253326] [PubMed: 2835519]
  140. Goodwin R.G., Rottman F.M., Callaghan T., Kung H.-J., Maroney P.A., Nilsen T.W. c-erbB activation in avian leukosis virus-induced erythroblastosis: Multiple epidermal growth factor receptor mRNAs are generated by alternative RNA processing. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1986;6:3128–3133. [PMC free article: PMC367047] [PubMed: 3023963]
  141. Gorman C.M., Merlino G.T., Willingham M.C., Pastan I., Howard B.H. The Rous sarcoma virus long terminal repeat is a strong promoter when introduced into a variety of eukaryotic cells by DNA-mediated transfection. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1982;79:6777–6781. [PMC free article: PMC347216] [PubMed: 6294651]
  142. Grassmann R., Berchtold S., Aepinus C., Ballaun C., Boehnlein E., Fleckenstein B. In vitro binding of human T-cell leukemia virus rex proteins to the rex-responsive element of viral transcripts. J. Virol. 1991;65:3721–3727. [PMC free article: PMC241395] [PubMed: 1904103]
  143. Graves B.J., Eisenman R.N., McKnight S.L. Delineation of transcriptional control signals within the Moloney murine sarcoma virus long terminal repeat. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1985;5:1948–1958. [PMC free article: PMC366912] [PubMed: 3018539]
  144. Graves B.J., Johnson P.F., McKnight S.L. Homologous recognition of a promoter domain common to the MSV LTR and the HSV tk gene. Cell. 1986;44:565–576. [PubMed: 3004739]
  145. Green M.R. Biochemical mechanisms of constitutive and regulated pre-mRNA splicing. Annu. Rev. Cell Biol. 1991;7:559–599. [PubMed: 1839712]
  146. Greene W.C., Cullen B.R. The Rev-Rex connection: Convergent strategies for the posttranscriptional regulation of HIV-1 and HTLV-1 gene expression. Semin. Virol. 1990;1:195–204.
  147. Greenhouse J.J., Petropoulos C.J., Crittenden L.B., Hughes S.H. Helper-independent retrovirus vectors with Rous-associated virus type 0 long terminal repeats. J. Virol. 1988;62:4809–4812. [PMC free article: PMC253605] [PubMed: 2460645]
  148. Gronemeyer H. Transcription activation by estrogen and progesterone receptors. Annu. Rev. Genet. 1991;25:89–123. [PubMed: 1667464]
  149. Guddat. U., Bakken A.H., Pieler T. Protein-mediated nuclear export of RNA: 5S rRNA containing small RNPs in Xenopus oocytes. Cell. 1990;60:619–628. [PubMed: 2137374]
  150. Guntaka R. Transcription termination and polyadenylation in retroviruses. Microbiol. Rev. 1993;57:511–521. [PMC free article: PMC372924] [PubMed: 7902524]
  151. Gunther C.V., Graves B.J. Identification of ETS domain proteins in murine T lymphocytes that interact with the Moloney murine leukemia virus enhancer. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1994;14:7569–7580. [PMC free article: PMC359293] [PubMed: 7935472]
  152. Günzburg W.H., Salmons B. Factors controlling the expression of mouse mammary tumour virus. Biochem. J. 1992;283:625–632. [PMC free article: PMC1130929] [PubMed: 1317161]
  153. Günzburg W.H., Heinemann F., Wintersperger S., Miethke T., Wagner H., Erfle V., Salmons B. Endogenous superantigen expression controlled by a novel promoter in the MMTV long terminal repeat. Nature. 1993;364:154–158. [PubMed: 8391646]
  154. Hadzopoulou-Cladaras M., Felber B.K., Cladaras C., Athanassopoulos A., Tse A., Pavlakis G.N. The rev (trs/art) protein of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 affects viral mRNA and protein expression via a cis-acting sequence in the env region. J. Virol. 1989;63:1265–1274. [PMC free article: PMC247823] [PubMed: 2783738]
  155. Hallberg B., Schmidt J., Luz A., Pedersen F.S., Grundstrom T. SL3-3 enhancer factor 1 transcriptional activators are required for tumor formation by SL3-3 murine leukemia virus. J. Virol. 1991;65:4177–4181. [PMC free article: PMC248852] [PubMed: 1649324]
  156. Hanly S.M., Rimsky L.T., Malim M.H., Kim J.H., Hauber J., Duc-Dodon M., Le S.-Y., Maizel J.V., Cullen B.R., Greene W.C. Comparative analysis of the HTLV-I Rex and HIV-1 Rev trans-regulatory proteins and their RNA response elements. Genes Dev. 1989;3:1534–1544. [PubMed: 2482226]
  157. Hart C.E., Ou C.Y., Galphin J.C., Moore J., Bacheler L.T., Wasmuth J.J., Petteway S.R. Jr., Schochetman G. Human chromosome 12 is required for elevated HIV-1 expression in human-hamster hybrid cells. Science. 1989;246:488–491. [PubMed: 2683071]
  158. Hauber J., Cullen B.R. Mutational analysis of the trans-activation-responsive region of the human immunodeficiency virus type I long terminal repeat. J. Virol. 1988;62:673–679. [PMC free article: PMC253619] [PubMed: 2828663]
  159. Hayward W.S., Neel B.G., Astrin S.M. Activation of a cellular onc gene by promoter insertion in ALV-induced lymphoid leukosis. Nature. 1981;290:475–480. [PubMed: 6261142]
  160. He F., Blair W.S., Fukushima J., Cullen B.R. The human foamy virus Bel-1 transcription factor is a sequence-specific DNA binding protein. J. Virol. 1996;70:3902–3908. [PMC free article: PMC190268] [PubMed: 8648727]
  161. Heaphy S., Finch J.T., Gait M.J., Karn J., Singh M. Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 regulator of virion expression, rev, forms nucleoprotein filaments after binding to a purine-rich “bubble” located within the rev-responsive region of viral mRNAs. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1991;88:7366–7370. [PMC free article: PMC52296] [PubMed: 1871141]
  162. Heaphy S., Dingwall C., Ernberg I., Gait M.J., Green S.M., Karn J., Lowe A.D., Singh M., Skinner M.A. HIV-1 regulator of virion expression (Rev) protein binds to an RNA stem-loop structure located within the Rev response element. Cell. 1990;60:685–693. [PubMed: 1689218]
  163. Herman S.A., Coffin J.M. Efficient packaging of readthrough RNA in ALV: Implications for oncogene transduction. Science. 1987;236:845–848. [PubMed: 3033828]
  164. Herrmann C.R., Rice A.P. Lentivirus Tat proteins specifically associate with a cellular protein kinase, TAK, that hyperphosphorylates the carboxy-terminal domain of the large subunit of RNA polymerase II: Candidate for a Tat cofactor. J. Virol. 1995;69:1612–1620. [PMC free article: PMC188757] [PubMed: 7853496]
  165. Hidaka M., Inoue J., Yoshida M., Seiki M. Posttranscriptional regulator (rex) of HTLV-1 initiates expression of viral structural proteins but suppresses expression of regulatory proteins. EMBO J. 1988;7:519–523. [PMC free article: PMC454349] [PubMed: 2835230]
  166. Hilberg F., Stocking C., Ostertag W., Grez M. Functional analysis of a retroviral host-range mutant: Altered long terminal repeat sequences allow expression in embryonal carcinoma cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1987;84:5232–5236. [PMC free article: PMC298829] [PubMed: 3037539]
  167. Hoeben R.C., Migchielsen A.A.J., van der Jagt R.C.M., van Ormondt H., Eb A.J. van der. Inactivation of the Moloney murine leukemia virus long terminal repeat in murine fibroblast cell lines is associated with methylation and dependent on its chromosomal position. J. Virol. 1991;65:904–912. [PMC free article: PMC239831] [PubMed: 1702844]
  168. Holland S.M., Chavez M., Gerstberger S., Venkatesan S. A specific sequence with a bulged guanosine residue(s) in a stem-bulge-stem structure of Rev-responsive element RNA is required for trans-activation by human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Rev. J. Virol. 1992;66:3699–3706. [PMC free article: PMC241154] [PubMed: 1583728]
  169. Horowitz D.S., Krainer A.R. Mechanisms for selecting 5′ splice sites in mammalian pre-mRNA splicing. Trends Genet. 1994;10:100–106. [PubMed: 8178363]
  170. Hsu C.-L.L., Fabritius C., Dudley J. Mouse mammary tumor virus proviruses in T-cell lymphomas lack a negative regulatory element in the long terminal repeat. J. Virol. 1988;62:4644–4652. [PMC free article: PMC253577] [PubMed: 2846876]
  171. Inoue J.-I., Yoshida M., Seiki M. Transcriptional (p40χ) and posttranscriptional (p27χ-III) regulators are required for the expression and replication of the human leukemia virus type I genes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1987;84:3653–3657. [PMC free article: PMC304933] [PubMed: 3035544]
  172. Inoue J.-I., Seiki M., Taniguchi T., Tsuru S., Yoshida M. Induction of interleukin-2 receptor gene expression by p40χ encoded by human T-cell leukemia virus type 1. EMBO J. 1986;5:2883–2888. [PMC free article: PMC1167238] [PubMed: 3024966]
  173. Iwasaki K., Temin H.M. The efficiency of RNA 3′ end formation is determined by the distance between the cap site and the poly(A) site in spleen necrosis virus. Genes Dev. 1990;4:2299–2307. [PubMed: 1703980]
  174. Jaenisch R., Jähner D., Nobis P., Simon I., Löhler J., Harbers K., Grotkopp D. Chromosomal position and activation of retroviral genomes inserted into the germ line of mice. Cell. 1981;24:519–529. [PubMed: 7237558]
  175. Jähner D., Jaenisch R. Chromosomal position and specific demethylation in enhancer sequences of germ line-transmitted retroviral genomes during mouse development. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1985;5:2212–2220. [PMC free article: PMC366946] [PubMed: 3837187]
  176. Jähner D., Stuhlmann H., Stewart C.L., Harbers K., Löhler J., Simon I., Jaenisch R. De novo methylation and expression of retroviral genomes during mouse embryogenesis. Nature. 1982;298:623–628. [PubMed: 6285203]
  177. Janknecht R., Hunter T. A growing coactivator network. Nature. 1996;383:22–23. [PubMed: 8779707]
  178. Jeang K.-T., Widen S.G., Semmes IV O.J., Wilson S.H. HTLV-I trans-activator protein, Tax, is a trans-repressor of the human β-polymerase gene. Science. 1990;247:1082–1084. [PubMed: 2309119]
  179. Jeang K.-T., Boros I., Brady J., Radonovich M., Khoury G. Characterization of cellular factors that interact with the human T-cell leukemia virus type I p40χ-responsive 21-base-pair sequence. J. Virol. 1988;62:4499–4509. [PMC free article: PMC253560] [PubMed: 3263510]
  180. Jeang K.-T., Chun R., Lin N.H., Gatignol A., Glabe C.G., Fan H. In vitro and in vivo binding of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Tat protein and Sp1 transcription factor. J. Virol. 1993;67:6224–6233. [PMC free article: PMC238044] [PubMed: 7690421]
  181. Johnson P.F., McKnight S.L. Eukaryotic transcriptional regulatory proteins. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 1989;58:799–839. [PubMed: 2673023]
  182. Jones K.A., Peterlin B.M. Control of RNA initiation and elongation at the HIV-1 promoter. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 1994;63:717–743. [PubMed: 7979253]
  183. Jones K.A., Kadonaga J.T., Luciw P.A., Tjian R. Activation of the AIDS retrovirus promoter by the cellular transcription factor, Sp1. Science. 1986;232:755–759. [PubMed: 3008338]
  184. Jones N.C., Rigby P.W.J., Ziff E.B. trans-Acting protein factors and the regulation of eukaryotic transcription: Lessons from studies on DNA tumor viruses. Genes Dev. 1988;2:267–281. [PubMed: 3288540]
  185. Kalebic T., Kinter A., Poli G., Anderson M.E., Meister A., Fauci A.S. Suppression of human immundeficiency virus expression in chronically infected monocytic cells by glutathione, glutathione ester, and N-acetylcysteine. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1991;88:986–990. [PMC free article: PMC50939] [PubMed: 1704137]
  186. Kalland K.-H., Szilvay A.M., Langhoff E., Haukenes G. Subcellular distribution of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Rev and colocalization of Rev with RNA splicing factors in a speckled pattern in the nucleoplasm. J. Virol. 1994;68:1475–1485. [PMC free article: PMC236603] [PubMed: 8107211]
  187. Kamine J., Subramanian T., Chinnadurai G. Sp1-dependent activation of a synthetic promoter by human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Tat protein. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1991;88:8510–8514. [PMC free article: PMC52538] [PubMed: 1924310]
  188. Kanamori H., Suzuki N., Siomi H., Nosaka T., Sato A., Sabe H., Hatanaka M., Honjo T. HTLV-1 p27 rex stabilizes human interleukin-2 receptor α chain mRNA. EMBO J. 1990;9:4161–4166. [PMC free article: PMC552191] [PubMed: 2249670]
  189. Kandala J.C., Guntaka R.V. Cloning of Rous sarcoma virus enhancer factor genes. Virology. 1994;198:514–523. [PubMed: 8291233]
  190. Kanno T., Franzoso G., Siebenlist U. Human T-cell leukemia virus type I Tax-protein-mediated activation of NF-κB from p100 (NF-κB-2)-inhibited cytoplasmic reservoirs. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1994;91:12634–12638. [PMC free article: PMC45493] [PubMed: 7809091]
  191. Kao S.Y., Calman A.F., Luciw P.A., Peterlin B.M. Antitermination of transcription within the long terminal repeat of HIV-1 by tat gene product. Nature. 1987;330:489–493. [PubMed: 2825027]
  192. Kashanchi F., Piras G., Radonovich M.F., Duvall J.F., Fattaey A., Chiang C.-M., Roeder R.G., Brady J.N. Direct interaction of human TFIID with the HIV-1 transactivator tat. Nature. 1994;367:295–299. [PubMed: 8121496]
  193. Kato H., Sumimoto H., Pognonec P., Chen C.H., Rosen C.A., Roeder R.G. HIV-1 Tat acts as a processivity factor in vitro in conjunction with cellular elongation factors. Genes Dev. 1992;6:655–666. [PubMed: 1559613]
  194. Katz R.A., Skalka A.M. Control of retroviral RNA splicing through maintenance of suboptimal processing signals. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1990;10:696–704. [PMC free article: PMC360868] [PubMed: 2153921]
  195. Katz R.A., Kotler M., Skalka A.M. cis-Acting intron mutations that affect the efficiency of avian retroviral RNA splicing: Implications for mechanisms of control. J. Virol. 1988;62:2686–2695. [PMC free article: PMC253701] [PubMed: 2839694]
  196. Keen N.J., Gait M.J., Karn J. Human immunodeficiency virus type-1 Tat is an integral component of the activated transcription-elongation complex. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1996;93:2505–2510. [PMC free article: PMC39827] [PubMed: 8637904]
  197. Keller A., Garrett E.D., Cullen B.R. The Bel-1 protein of human foamy virus activates human immunodeficiency virus type 1 gene expression via a novel DNA target site. J. Virol. 1992;66:3946–3949. [PMC free article: PMC241187] [PubMed: 1316494]
  198. Keller A., Partin K.M., Löchelt M., Bannert H., Flugel R.M., Cullen B.R. Characterization of the transcriptional trans activator of human foamy retrovirus. J. Virol. 1991;65:2589–2594. [PMC free article: PMC240616] [PubMed: 1850032]
  199. Kim S.Y., Byrn R., Groopman J., Baltimore D. Temporal aspects of DNA and RNA synthesis during human immunodeficiency virus infection: Evidence for differential gene expression. J. Virol. 1989;63:3708–3713. [PMC free article: PMC250962] [PubMed: 2760980]
  200. Kitajima I., Shinohara T., Bilakovics J., Brown D.A., Xu X., Nerenberg M. Ablation of transplanted HTLV-I tax-transformed tumors in mice by antisense inhibition of NF-κB. Science. 1992;258:1792–1795. [PubMed: 1299224]
  201. Kjems J., Sharp P.A. Specific binding of a basic peptide from HIV-1 Rev. EMBO J. 1992;11:1119–1129. [PMC free article: PMC556554] [PubMed: 1547776]
  202. Kjems J., Sharp P.A. The basic domain of Rev from human immunodeficiency virus type 1 specifically blocks the entry of U4/U6. U5 small nuclear ribonucleoprotein in spliceosome assembly. J. Virol. 1993;67:4769–4776. [PMC free article: PMC237863] [PubMed: 8331728]
  203. Kjems J., Frankel A.D., Sharp P.A. Specific regulation of mRNA in vitro by a peptide from HIV-1 Rev. Cell. 1991;67:169–178. [PubMed: 1913815]
  204. Koleske A., Young R. The RNA polymerase II holoenzyme and its implications for gene regulation. Trends Biochem. Sci. 1995;20:113–116. [PubMed: 7709429]
  205. Kretzschmar M., Meisterernst M., Scheidereit C., Li G., Roeder R.G. Transcriptional regulation of the HIV-1 promoter by NF-κB in vitro. Genes Dev. 1992;6:761–774. [PubMed: 1577271]
  206. Krug R.M. The regulation of export of mRNA from nucleus to cytoplasm. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 1993;5:944–949. [PubMed: 8129947]
  207. Kung H.-J., Boerkoel C., Carter T.H. Retroviral mutagenesis of cellular oncogenes: A review with insights into the mechanisms of insertional activation. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 1991;171:1–25. [PubMed: 1814689]
  208. Laimins L.A., Tsichlis P.N., Khoury G. Multiple enhancer domains in the 3′ terminus of the Prague strain of Rous sarcoma virus. Nucleic Acids Res. 1984a;12:6427–6442. [PMC free article: PMC320087] [PubMed: 6089114]
  209. Laimins L.A., Gruss P., Pozzatti R., Khoury G. Characterization of enhancer elements in the long terminal repeat of Moloney murine sarcoma virus. J. Virol. 1984b;49:183–189. [PMC free article: PMC255440] [PubMed: 6690710]
  210. Lalli E., Sassone-Corsi P. Signal transduction and gene regulation: The nuclear response to cAMP. J. Biol. Chem. 1994;269:17359–17362. [PubMed: 8021233]
  211. Laspia M.F., Rice A.P., Matthews M.B. HIV-1 Tat protein increases transcriptional initiation and stabilizes elongation. Cell. 1989;59:283–292. [PubMed: 2553266]
  212. Lazo P.A., Lee J.S., Tsichlis P.N. Long-distance activation of the Myc protooncogene by provirus insertion in Mlvi-1 and Mlvi-4 in rat T-cell lymphomas. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1990;87:170–173. [PMC free article: PMC53222] [PubMed: 1688653]
  213. Lee J.S., Varmus H.E., Bishop J.M. Virus-specific messenger RNAs in permissive cells infected by avian sarcoma virus. J. Biol. Chem. 1979;245:8015–8022. [PubMed: 224042]
  214. Lefebvre P., Berard D.S., Cordingley M.G., Hager G.L. Two regions of the mouse mammary tumor virus long terminal repeat regulate the activity of its promoter in mammary cell lines. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1991;11:2529–2537. [PMC free article: PMC360022] [PubMed: 1708094]
  215. Leonard J., Parrott C., Buckler-White A.J., Turner W., Ross E.K., Martin M.A., Rabson A.B. The NF-κB binding sites in the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 long terminal repeat are not required for virus infectivity. J. Virol. 1989;63:4919–4924. [PMC free article: PMC251138] [PubMed: 2795721]
  216. Leung K., Nabel G.J. HTLV-I transactivator induces interleukin-2 receptor expression through an NF-κB-like factor. Nature. 1988;333:776–778. [PubMed: 2838755]
  217. Levinson B., Khoury G., Van de Woude G., Gruss P. Activation of SV40 genome by the 72 base-pair tandem repeats of Moloney sarcoma virus. Nature. 1982;295:568–572. [PubMed: 6276775]
  218. Li Y., Golemis E., Hartley J.W., Hopkins N. Disease specificity of nondefective Friend and Moloney murine leukemia viruses is controlled by a small number of nucleotides. J. Virol. 1987;61:693–700. [PMC free article: PMC254008] [PubMed: 3468264]
  219. Linney E., Davis B., Overhauser J., Chao E., Fan H. Non-function of a Moloney murine leukemia virus regulatory sequence in F9 embryonal carcinoma cells. Nature. 1984;308:470–472. [PubMed: 6323996]
  220. Lis J., Wu C. Protein traffic on the heat shock promoter: Parking, stalling, and trucking along. Cell. 1993;74:1–4. [PubMed: 8334697]
  221. Liu J., Perkins N.D., Schmid R.M., Nabel G.J. Specific NF-κB subunits act in concert with Tat to stimulate human immunodeficiency virus type 1 transcription. J. Virol. 1992;66:3883–3887. [PMC free article: PMC241175] [PubMed: 1583734]
  222. Löchelt M., Muranyi W., Flugel R.M. Human foamy virus genome possesses an internal, Bel-1-dependent and functional promoter. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1993;90:7317–7321. [PMC free article: PMC47128] [PubMed: 8394017]
  223. Loh T.P., Sievert L.L., Scott R.W. Negative regulation of retrovirus expression in embryonal carcinoma cells mediated by an intragenic domain. J. Virol. 1988;62:4086–4095. [PMC free article: PMC253839] [PubMed: 3172339]
  224. Loreni F., Stavenhagen J., Kalff M., Robins D.M. A complex androgen-responsive enhancer resides 2 kilobases upstream of the mouse Slp gene. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1988;8:2350–2360. [PMC free article: PMC363433] [PubMed: 3165490]
  225. Lu X., Welsh T.M., Peterlin B.M. The human immunodeficiency virus type 1 long terminal repeat specifies two different transcription complexes, only one of which is regulated by Tat. J. Virol. 1993;67:1752–1760. [PMC free article: PMC240213] [PubMed: 8445708]
  226. Lu X.B., Heimer J., Rekosh D., Hammarskjöld M.L. U1 small nuclear RNA plays a direct role in the formation of a rev-regulated human immunodeficiency virus env mRNA that remains unspliced. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1990;87:7598–7602. [PMC free article: PMC54795] [PubMed: 2217190]
  227. Lucas P.C., Granner D.K. Hormone response domain in gene transcription. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 1992;61:1131–1173. [PubMed: 1323234]
  228. Luciw P.A., Bishop J.M., Varmus H.E., Capecchi M.R. Location and function of retroviral and SV40 sequences that enhance biochemical transformation after microinjection of DNA. Cell. 1983;33:705–716. [PubMed: 6307525]
  229. Luisi B.F., Xu W.X., Otwinowski Z., Freedman L.P., Yamamoto K.R., Sigler P.B. Crystallographic analysis of the interaction of the glucocorticoid receptor with DNA. Nature. 1991;352:497–505. [PubMed: 1865905]
  230. Luo Y., Yu H., Peterlin B.M. Cellular protein modulates effects of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Rev. J. Virol. 1994;68:3850–3856. [PMC free article: PMC236890] [PubMed: 8189522]
  231. Majors J. The structure and function of retroviral long terminal repeats. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 1990;157:49–92. [PubMed: 2203611]
  232. Maldarelli F., Martin M.A., Strebel K. Identification of posttranscriptionally active inhibitory sequences in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 RNA: Novel level of gene regulation. J. Virol. 1991;65:5732–5743. [PMC free article: PMC250233] [PubMed: 1656066]
  233. Malim M.H., Cullen B.R. HIV-1 structural gene expression requires binding of multiple Rev monomers to the viral RRE-implications for HIV-1 latency. Cell. 1991;65:241–248. [PubMed: 2015625]
  234. Malim M.H., Cullen B.R. Rev and the fate of pre-mRNA in the nucleus: Implications for the regulation of RNA processing in eukaryotics. Mol. Cell Biol. 1993;13:6180–6189. [PMC free article: PMC364677] [PubMed: 8105371]
  235. Malim M.H., Böhnlein S., Hauber J., Cullen B.R. Functional dissection of the HIV-1 Rev trans-activator—Derivation of a trans-dominant repressor of Rev function. Cell. 1989a;58:205–214. [PubMed: 2752419]
  236. Malim M.H., Hauber J., Fenrick R., Cullen B.R. Immunodeficiency virus rev trans-activator modulates the expression of the viral regulatory genes. Nature. 1988;335:181–183. [PubMed: 3412474]
  237. Malim M.H., Hauber J., Le S.Y., Maizel J.V., Cullen B.R. The HIV-1 rev trans-activator acts through a structured target sequence to activate nuclear export of unspliced viral mRNA. Nature. 1989b;338:254–257. [PubMed: 2784194]
  238. Malim M.H., Tiley L.S., McCarn D.F., Rusche J.R., Hauber J., Cullen B.R. HIV-1 structural gene expression requires binding of the Rev trans-activator to its RNA target sequence. Cell. 1990;60:675–683. [PubMed: 2406030]
  239. Malim M.H., Freimuth W.W., Liu J., Boyle T.J., Lyerly H.K., Cullen B.R., Nabel G.J. Stable expression of trans-dominant Rev protein in human T-cells inhibits human immunodeficiency virus replication. J. Exp. Med. 1992;176:1197–1201. [PMC free article: PMC2119391] [PubMed: 1402661]
  240. Mangelsdorf D.J., Thummel C., Beato M., Herrlich P., Schütz G., Umesono K., Blumberg B., Kastner P., Mark M., Chambon P., Evans R.M. The nuclear receptor superfamily: The second decade. Cell. 1995;83:835–839. [PMC free article: PMC6159888] [PubMed: 8521507]
  241. Manley N.R., O'Connell M.A., Sharp P.A., Hopkins N. Nuclear factors that bind to the enhancer region of nondefective Friend murine leukemia virus. J. Virol. 1989;63:4210–4223. [PMC free article: PMC251035] [PubMed: 2778872]
  242. Manley N.R., O'Connell M., Sun W., Speck N.A., Hopkins N. Two factors that bind to highly conserved sequences in mammalian type C retroviral enhancers. J. Virol. 1993;67:1967–1975. [PMC free article: PMC240265] [PubMed: 8445718]
  243. Mann D.A., Mikaelian I., Zemmel R.W., Green S.M., Lowe A.D., Kimura T., Singh M., Butler P.J., Gait M.J., Karn J. A molecular rheostat. Cooperative rev binding to stem I of the rev-response element modulates human immunodeficiency virus type-1 late gene expression. J. Mol. Biol. 1994;241:193–207. [PubMed: 8057359]
  244. Marciniak R.A., Sharp P.A. HIV-1 Tat promotes formation of more-processive elongation complexes. EMBO J. 1991;10:4189–4196. [PMC free article: PMC453171] [PubMed: 1756726]
  245. Marciniak R.A., Garcia-Blanco M.A., Sharp P.A. Identification and characterization of a HeLa nuclear protein that specifically binds to the trans-activation-response (TAR) element of human immunodeficiency virus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1990a;87:3624–3628. [PMC free article: PMC53954] [PubMed: 2333305]
  246. Marciniak R.A., Calnan B.J., Frankel A.D., Sharp P.A. HIV-1 Tat protein trans-activates transcription in vitro. Cell. 1990b;63:791–802. [PubMed: 2225077]
  247. Marriott S.J., Lindholm P.F., Brown K.M., Gitlin S.D., Duvall J.F., Radonovich M.F., Brady J.N. A 36-kilodalton cellular transcription factor mediates an indirect interaction of human T-cell leukemia/lymphoma virus type I TAX1 with a responsive element in the viral long terminal repeat. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1990;10:4192–4201. [PMC free article: PMC360951] [PubMed: 2370863]
  248. Maruyama M., Shibuya H., Harada H., Hatakeyama M., Seiki M., Fujita T., Inoue J., Yoshida M., Taniguchi T. Evidence for aberrant activation of the interleukin-2 autocrine loop by HTLV-1-encoded p40χ and T3/Ti complex triggering. Cell. 1987;48:343–350. [PubMed: 3026643]
  249. Matthews M.-A.H., Markowitz R.-B., Dynan W.S. In vitro activation of transcription by the human T-cell leukemia virus type I Tax protein. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1992;12:1986–1996. [PMC free article: PMC364369] [PubMed: 1569936]
  250. Mattox W., Ryner L., Baker B.S. Autoregulation and multifunctionality among trans-acting factors that regulate alternative pre-mRNA processing. J. Biol. Chem. 1992;267:19023–19026. [PubMed: 1527029]
  251. Mavankal G., Ignatius Ou S.H., Oliver H., Sigman D., Gaynor R.B. Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 and 2 Tat proteins specifically interact with RNA polymerase II. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1996;93:2089–2094. [PMC free article: PMC39914] [PubMed: 8700889]
  252. McDonald D., Hope T.J., Parslow T.G. Posttranscriptional regulation by the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Rev and human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 Rex proteins through a heterologous RNA binding site. J. Virol. 1992;66:7232–7238. [PMC free article: PMC240426] [PubMed: 1433516]
  253. McGuire K.L., Curtiss V.E., Larson E.L., Haseltine W.A. Influence of human T-cell leukemia virus type I tax and rex on interleukin-2 gene expression. J. Virol. 1993;67:1590–1599. [PMC free article: PMC237530] [PubMed: 8382312]
  254. McKeown M. Alternative mRNA splicing. Annu. Rev. Cell Biol. 1992;8:133–155. [PubMed: 1335742]
  255. McKinsey T.A., Brockman J.A., Scherer D.C., Al-Murrani S.W., Green P.L., Ballard D.W. Inactivation of IκBβ by the Tax protein of human T-cell leukemia virus type 1: A potential mechanism for constitutive induction of NF-κB. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1996;16:2083–2090. [PMC free article: PMC231195] [PubMed: 8628274]
  256. McNally L.M., McNally M.T. SR protein splicing factors interact with the Rous sarcoma virus negative regulator of splicing. J. Virol. 1996;70:1163–1172. [PMC free article: PMC189925] [PubMed: 8551577]
  257. McNally M.T., Beemon K. Intronic sequences and 3′ splice sites control Rous sarcoma virus RNA splicing. J. Virol. 1992;66:6–11. [PMC free article: PMC238253] [PubMed: 1309264]
  258. McNally M.T., Gontarek R.R., Beemon K. Characterization of Rous sarcoma virus intronic sequences that negatively regulate splicing. Virology. 1991;185:99–108. [PubMed: 1656608]
  259. Mellentin-Michelotti J., John S., Pennie W.D., Williams T., Hager G.L. The 5′ enhancer of the mouse mammary tumor virus long terminal repeat contains a functional AP-2 element. J. Biol. Chem. 1994;269:31983–31990. [PubMed: 7989375]
  260. Meyer B.E., Malim M.H. The HIV-1 Rev-transactivator shuttles between the nucleus, and the cytoplasm. Genes Dev. 1994;8:1538–1547. [PubMed: 7958838]
  261. Michalides R., Wagenaar E., Hilkens J., Hilgers J., Groner B., Hynes N.E. Acquistion of proviral DNA of mouse mammary tumor virus in thymic leukemia cells from GR mice. J. Virol. 1982;43:819–829. [PMC free article: PMC256192] [PubMed: 6292463]
  262. Migone T.S., Lin J.X., Cereseto A., Mulloy J.C., O'Shea J.J., Franchini G., Leonard W.J. Constitutively activated Jak-STAT pathway in T cells transformed with HTLV-I. Science. 1995;269:79–81. [PubMed: 7604283]
  263. Miksicek R., Heber A., Schmid W., Danesch U., Posseckert G., Beato M., Schutz G. Glucocorticoid responsiveness of the transcriptional enhancer of Moloney murine sarcoma virus. Cell. 1986;46:283–290. [PubMed: 3013424]
  264. Miller C.K., Embretson J.E., Temin H.M. Transforming viruses spontaneously arise from nontransforming reticuloendotheliosis virus strain T-derived viruses as a result of increased accumulation of spliced viral RNA. J. Virol. 1988;62:1219–1226. [PMC free article: PMC253130] [PubMed: 2831382]
  265. Miller C.L., Garner R., Paetkau V. An activation-dependent, T-lymphocyte-specific transcriptional activator in the mouse mammary tumor virus env gene. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1992;12:3262–3272. [PMC free article: PMC364540] [PubMed: 1320198]
  266. Mink S., Ponta H., Cato A.C. The long terminal repeat region of the mouse mammary tumor virus contains multiple regulatory elements. Nucleic Acids Res. 1990;18:2017–2024. [PMC free article: PMC330677] [PubMed: 2159634]
  267. Mink S., Hartig P., Jennewein P., Doppler W., Cato A.C. A mammary cell-specific enhancer in mouse mammary tumor virus DNA is composed of multiple regulatory elements including binding sites for CTF/NFI and a novel transcription factor, mammary cell-activating factor. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1992;12:4906–4918. [PMC free article: PMC360423] [PubMed: 1328867]
  268. Miyamoto S., Verma I.M. REL/NF-κB/IκB Story. Adv. Cancer Res. 1995;66:255–292. [PubMed: 7793317]
  269. Mok E., Golovkina T.V., Ross S.R. A mouse mammary tumor virus mammary gland enhancer confers tissue-specific but not lactation-dependent expression in transgenic mice. J. Virol. 1992;66:7529–7532. [PMC free article: PMC240463] [PubMed: 1331537]
  270. Moore M.J., Query C.C., Sharp P.A. 1993Splicing of precursors to mRNAs by the spliceosome In The RNA world (ed. R.F. Gesteland and J.F. Atkins), pp. 333–357. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, New York. [PMC free article: PMC47311]
  271. Mori N., Shirakawa F., Shimizu H., Murakami S., Oda S., Yamamato K., Eto S. Transcriptional regulation of the human interleukin-6 gene promoter in human T-cell leukemia virus type I-infected T-cell lines: Evidence for the involvement of NF-κB. Blood. 1994;84:2904–2911. [PubMed: 7949164]
  272. Morley K.L., Toohey M.G., Peterson D.O. Transcriptional repression of a hormone-responsive promoter. Nucleic Acids Res. 1987;15:6973–6989. [PMC free article: PMC306187] [PubMed: 2821488]
  273. Morrison H.L., Soni B., Lenz J. Long terminal repeat enhancer core sequences in proviruses adjacent to c-myc in T-cell lymphomas induced by a murine retrovirus. J. Virol. 1995;69:446–455. [PMC free article: PMC188593] [PubMed: 7983741]
  274. Mowat M., Cheng A., Kimura N., Bernstein A., Benchimol S. Rearrangement of the cellular p53 gene in erythroleukaemic cells transformed by Friend virus. Nature. 1985;314:633–636. [PubMed: 3990796]
  275. Muesing M.A., Smith D.H., Capon D.J. Regulation of mRNA accumulation by a human immunodeficiency virus transactivator protein. Cell. 1987;48:691–701. [PubMed: 3643816]
  276. Muesing M.A., Smith D.H., Cabradilla C.D., Benton C.V., Lasky L.A., Capon D.J. Nucleic acid structure and expression of the human AIDS/lymphadenopathy retrovirus. Nature. 1985;313:450–458. [PubMed: 2982104]
  277. Murre C., Baltimore D. 1992The helix-loop-helix motif: Structure and function In Transcriptional regulation (ed. S.L. McKnight and K.R. Yamamoto), vol. 2, pp. 861–879. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, New York.
  278. Nabel G., Baltimore D. An inducible transcription factor activates expression of human immunodefeciency virus in T cells. Nature. 1987;326:711–713. [PubMed: 3031512]
  279. Nabel G.J., Verma I.M. Proposed NF-κB/IκB family nomenclature. Genes Dev. 1993;7:2063. [PubMed: 8224837]
  280. Neel B.G., Hayward W.S., Robinson H.L., Fang J., Astrin S.M. Avian leukosis virus-induced tumors have common proviral integration sites and synthesize discrete new RNAs: Oncogenesis by promoter insertion. Cell. 1981;23:323–334. [PubMed: 6258798]
  281. Nevins J.R. Transcriptional activation by viral regulatory proteins. Trends Biochem. Sci. 1991;16:435–439. [PubMed: 1663668]
  282. Newstein M., Stanbridge E.J., Casey G., Shank P.R. Human chromosome 12 encodes a species-specific factor which increases human immunodeficiency virus type 1 tat-mediated trans-activation in rodent cells. J. Virol. 1990;64:4565–4567. [PMC free article: PMC247929] [PubMed: 2200890]
  283. Nielsen A.L., Pallisgaard N., Pedersen F.S., Jorgensen P. Murine helix-loop-helix transcriptional activator proteins binding to the E-box motif of an Akv murine leukemia virus enhancer identified by cDNA cloning. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1992;12:3449–3459. [PMC free article: PMC364594] [PubMed: 1321336]
  284. Nilsen T.W. RNA-RNA interactions in the splicesome: Unraveling the ties that bind. Cell. 1994;78:1–4. [PubMed: 7518355]
  285. Niwa O., Yokota N., Ishida N., Sugahara T. Independent mechanisms involved in suppression of the Moloney leukemia virus genome during differentiation of murine teratocarcinoma cells. Cell. 1983;32:1105–1113. [PubMed: 6188535]
  286. Nodwell J.R., Greenblatt J. The nut site of bacteriophage λ is made of RNA and is bound by transcription antitermination factors on the surface of RNA polymerase. Genes Dev. 1991;5:2141–2151. [PubMed: 1834523]
  287. Norton P.A., Coffin J.M. Characterization of Rous sarcoma virus sequences essential for viral gene expression. J. Virol. 1987;61:1171–1179. [PMC free article: PMC254078] [PubMed: 3029412]
  288. Nosaka T., Ariumi Y., Sakurai M., Takeuchi R., Hatanaka M. Novel internal promoter/enhancer of HTLV-I for Tax expression. Nucleic Acids Res. 1993;21:5124–5129. [PMC free article: PMC310626] [PubMed: 8255766]
  289. Nusse R. Insertional mutagenesis in mouse mammary tumorigenesis. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 1991;171:44–65. [PubMed: 1667629]
  290. Nusse R., Varmus H.E. Many tumors induced by the mouse mammary tumor virus contain a provirus integrated in the same region of the host genome. Cell. 1982;31:99–109. [PubMed: 6297757]
  291. Nyborg J.K., Dynan W.S., Chen I.S.Y., Wachsman W. Binding of host-cell factors to DNA sequences in the long terminal repeat of human T-cell leukemia virus type I: Implications for viral gene expression. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1988;85:1457–1461. [PMC free article: PMC279790] [PubMed: 2830620]
  292. Ogawa E., Inuzuka M., Maruyama M., Satake M., Naito-Fujimoto M., Ito Y., Shigesada K. Molecular cloning and characterization of PEBP2 β, the heterodimeric partner of a novel Drosophila runt-related DNA binding protein PEBP2 α Virology. 1993a;194:314–331. [PubMed: 8386878]
  293. Ogawa E., Maruyama M., Kagoshima H., Inuzuka M., Lu J., Satake M., Shigesada K., Ito Y. PEBP2/PEA2 represents a family of transcription factors homologous to the products of the Drosophila runt gene and the human AML1 gene. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1993b;90:6859–6863. [PMC free article: PMC47032] [PubMed: 8341710]
  294. Ogert R.A., Lee L.H., Beemon K.L. Avian retroviral RNA element promotes unspliced RNA accumulation in the cytoplasm. J. Virol. 1996;70:3834–3843. [PMC free article: PMC190260] [PubMed: 8648719]
  295. Ogryzko V.V., Schiltz R.L., Russanova V., Howard B.H., Nakatani Y. The transcriptional coactivators p300 and CBP are histone acetyltransferases. Cell. 1996;87:953–959. [PubMed: 8945521]
  296. Ohana B., Moore P.A., Ruben S.M., Southgate C.D., Green M.R., Rosen C.A. The type 1 human immunodeficiency virus Tat binding protein is a transcriptional activator belonging to an additional family of evolutionarily conserved genes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1993;90:138–142. [PMC free article: PMC45615] [PubMed: 8419915]
  297. Orphanides G., Lagrange T., Reinberg D. The general transcription factors of RNA polymerase II. Genes Dev. 1996;10:2657–2683. [PubMed: 8946909]
  298. Osborn L., Kunkel S., Nabel G.J. Tumor necrosis factor α and interleukin-1 stimulate the human immunodeficiency virus enhancer by activation of the nuclear factor κB. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1989;86:2336–2340. [PMC free article: PMC286907] [PubMed: 2494664]
  299. Ozer J., Faber M., Chalkley R., Sealy L. Isolation and characterization of a cDNA clone for the CCAAT transcription factor EF1A reveals a novel structural motif. J. Biol Chem. 1990;265:22143–22152. [PubMed: 1967130]
  300. Pabo C.O., Sauer R.T. Transcription factors: Structural families and principles of DNA recognition. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 1992;61:1053–1095. [PubMed: 1497306]
  301. Palmiter R.D., Sandgren E.P., Koeller D.M., Brinster R.L. Distal regulatory elements from the mouse metallothionein locus stimulate gene expression in transgenic mice. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1993;13:5266–5275. [PMC free article: PMC360219] [PubMed: 8355681]
  302. Palombella V.J., Rando O.J., Goldberg A.L., Maniatis T. The ubiquitin-proteasome pathway is required for processing the NF-κB1 precursor protein and the activation of NF-κB. Cell. 1994;78:773–785. [PubMed: 8087845]
  303. Parada C.A., Roeder R.G. Enhanced processivity of RNA polymerase II is triggered by Tat-induced phosphorylation of its carboxy-terminal domain. Nature. 1996;384:375–378. [PubMed: 8934526]
  304. Paranjape S.M., Kamakaka R.T., Kadonaga J.T. Role of chromatin structure in the regulation of transcription by RNA polymerase II. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 1994;63:265–298. [PubMed: 7979240]
  305. Park H., Davies M.V., Langland J.O., Chang H.W., Nam Y.S., Tartaglia J., Paoletti E., Jacobs B.L., Kaufman R.J., Venkatesan S. TAR RNA-binding protein is an inhibitor of the interferon-induced protein kinase PKR. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1994;91:4713–4717. [PMC free article: PMC43858] [PubMed: 7515177]
  306. Paskalis H., Felber B.K., Pavlakis G.N. cis-Acting sequences responsible for the transcriptional activation of human T-cell leukemia virus type I constitute a conditional enhancer. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1986;83:6558–6562. [PMC free article: PMC386543] [PubMed: 3018737]
  307. Payne G.S., Courtneidge S.A., Crittenden L.B., Fadly A.M., Bishop J.M., Varmus H.E. Analysis of avian leukosis virus DNA and RNA in bursal tumors: Viral gene expression is not required for maintenance of the tumor state. Cell. 1981;23:311–322. [PubMed: 6258797]
  308. Pazin M.J., Sheridan P.L., Cannon K., Cao Z., Keck J.G., Kadonaga J.T., Jones K.A. NF-κB-mediated chromatin reconfiguration and transcriptional activation of the HIV-1 enhancer in vitro. Genes Dev. 1996;10:37–49. [PubMed: 8557193]
  309. Peckham I., Sobel S., Comer J., Jaenisch R., Barklis E. Retrovirus activation in embryonal carcinoma cells by cellular promoters. Genes Dev. 1989;3:2062–2071. [PubMed: 2628163]
  310. Perini G., Wagner S., Green M.R. Recognition of bZIP proteins by the human T-cell leukaemia virus transactivator Tax. Nature. 1995;376:602–605. [PubMed: 7637811]
  311. Perkins N.D., Edwards N.L., Duckett C.S., Agranoff A.B., Schmid R.M., Nabel G.J. A cooperative interaction between NF-κB and Sp1 is required for HIV-1 enhancer activation. EMBO J. 1993;12:3551–3558. [PMC free article: PMC413631] [PubMed: 8253080]
  312. Peters G., Brookes S., Smith R., Dickson C. Tumorigenesis by mouse mammary tumor virus: Evidence for a common region for provirus integration in mammary tumors. Cell. 1983;33:369–377. [PubMed: 6305506]
  313. Peterson C.L., Tamkun J.W. The SWI-SNF complex: A chromatin remodeling machine? Trends Biochem. Sci. 1995;20:143–146. [PubMed: 7770913]
  314. Peterson R.D., Bartel D.P., Szostak J.W., Horvath S.J., Feigon J. 1H NMR studies of the high affinity Rev binding site of the Rev response element of HIV-1 mRNA: Base pairing in the core binding element. Biochemistry. 1994;33:5357–5366. [PubMed: 8180157]
  315. Petropoulos C.J., Hughes S.H. Replication-competent retrovirus vectors for the transfer and expression of gene cassettes in avian cells. J. Virol. 1991;65:3728–3737. [PMC free article: PMC241397] [PubMed: 2041092]
  316. Pomerantz R.J., Trono D., Feinberg M.B., Baltimore D. Cells nonproductively infected with HIV-1 exhibit an aberrant pattern of viral RNA expression: A molecular model for latency. Cell. 1990;61:1271–1276. [PubMed: 2364429]
  317. Pratt W.B. The role of heat shock proteins in regulating the function, folding, and trafficking of the glucocorticoid receptor. J. Biol. Chem. 1993;268:21455–21458. [PubMed: 8407992]
  318. Prince V.E., Rigby P.W. Derivatives of Moloney murine sarcoma virus capable of being transcribed in embryonal carcinoma stem cells have gained a functional Sp1 binding site. J. Virol. 1991;65:1803–1811. [PMC free article: PMC239988] [PubMed: 1848307]
  319. Proudfoot N. Poly(A) signals. Cell. 1991;64:671–674. [PubMed: 1671760]
  320. Pugh B.F. Mechanism of transcription complex assembly. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 1996;8:303–311. [PubMed: 8743879]
  321. Puglisi J.D., Tan R., Calnan B.J., Frankel A.D., Williamson J.R. Conformation of the TAR RNA-arginine complex by NMR spectroscopy. Science. 1992;257:76–80. [PubMed: 1621097]
  322. Purcell D.F.J., Martin M.A. Alternative splicing of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 mRNA modulates viral protein expression, replication and infectivity. J. Virol. 1993;67:6365–6378. [PMC free article: PMC238071] [PubMed: 8411338]
  323. Régnier C.H., Song H.Y., Gao X., Goeddel D.V., Cao Z., Rothe M. Identification and characterization of an IκB kinase. Cell. 1997;90:373–383. [PubMed: 9244310]
  324. Reisman D. Nuclear factor-1 (NF-1) binds to multiple sites within the transcriptional enhancer of Moloney murine leukemia virus. FEBS Lett. 1990;277:209–211. [PubMed: 2269357]
  325. Rethwilm A., Mori K., Maurer B., Meulen V. ter. trans-Acting transcriptional activation of human spumaretrovirus LTR infected cells. Virology. 1990;175:568–571. [PubMed: 2158186]
  326. Rethwilm A., Erlwein O., Baunach G., Maurer B., Meulen V. ter. The transcriptional transactivator of human foamy virus maps to the bel 1 genomic region. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1991;88:941–945. [PMC free article: PMC50930] [PubMed: 1846970]
  327. Reuss F.U., Coffin J.M. Stimulation of mouse mammary tumor virus superantigen expression by an intragenic enhancer. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1995;592:9293–9297. [PMC free article: PMC40971] [PubMed: 7568120]
  328. Rimsky L., Duc Dodon M., Dixon E.P., Greene W.C. Transdominant inactivation of HTLV-I and HIV-1 gene expression by mutation of the HTLV-I Rex transactivator. Nature. 1989;341:453–456. [PubMed: 2677743]
  329. Rimsky L., Hauber J., Dukovich M., Malim M.H., Langlois A., Cullen B.R., Greene W.C. Functional replacement of the HIV-1 Rev protein by the HTLV-1 Rex protein. Nature. 1988;335:738–740. [PubMed: 3262832]
  330. Robberson B.L., Cote G.J., Berget S.M. Exon definition may facilitate splice site selection in RNAs with multiple exons. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1990;10:84–94. [PMC free article: PMC360715] [PubMed: 2136768]
  331. Robinson H.L., Jensen L., Coffin J.M. 1985Sequences outside of the long terminal repeat determine the lymphomogenic potential of Rous-associated virus type 1 J. Virol 55752–759.. [PMC free article: PMC255059] [PubMed: 2991594]
  332. Robinson H.L., Blais B.M., Tsichlis P.N., Coffin J.M. At least two regions of the viral genome determine the oncogenic potential of avian leukosis viruses. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1982;79:1225–1229. [PMC free article: PMC345934] [PubMed: 6280174]
  333. Rosen C.A. HIV regulatory proteins: Potential targets for therapeutic intervention. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses. 1992;8:175–181. [PubMed: 1540405]
  334. Rosen C.A., Sodroski J.G., Haseltine W.A. Location of cis-acting regulatory sequences in the human T-cell leukemia virus type I long terminal repeat. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1985a;82:6502–6506. [PMC free article: PMC390745] [PubMed: 2995968]
  335. Rosen C.A., Sodroski J.G., Haseltine W.A. The location of cis-acting regulatory sequences in the human T cell lymphotropic virus type III (HTLV-III/LAV) long terminal repeat. Cell. 1985b;41:813–823. [PubMed: 2988790]
  336. Rosen C.A., Sodroski J.G., Kettmann R., Burny A., Haseltine W.A. trans-Activation of the bovine leukemia virus long terminal repeat in BLV-infected cells. Science. 1985c;227:320–322. [PubMed: 2981432]
  337. Rosen C.A., Terwilliger E., Dayton A., Sodroski J.G., Haseltine W.A. Intragenic cis-acting art gene-responsive sequences of the human immunodeficiency virus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1988;85:2071–2075. [PMC free article: PMC279930] [PubMed: 2832844]
  338. Ross S.R., Hsu C.-L.L., Choi Y., Mok E., Dudley J.P. Negative regulation in correct tissue-specific expression of mouse mammary tumor virus in transgenic mice. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1990;10:5822–5829. [PMC free article: PMC361364] [PubMed: 1700274]
  339. Rothe M., Sarma V., Dixit V.M., Goeddel D.V. TRAF2-mediated activation of NF-κB by TNF receptor 2 and CD40. Science. 1995;269:1424–1427. [PubMed: 7544915]
  340. Rounseville M.P., Kumar A. Binding of a host cell nuclear protein to the stem region of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 trans-activation-responsive RNA. J. Virol. 1992;66:1688–94. [PMC free article: PMC240912] [PubMed: 1738206]
  341. Rousset R., Desbois C., Bantignies F., Jalinot P. Effects on NF-κ B1/p105 processing of the interaction between the HTLV-I transactivator Tax and the proteasome. Nature. 1996;381:328–331. [PubMed: 8692272]
  342. Roy S., Delling U., Chen C.H., Rosen C.A., Sonenberg N. A bulge structure in HIV-1 TAR RNA is required for Tat binding and Tat-mediated trans-activation. Genes Dev. 1990a;4:1365–1373. [PubMed: 2227414]
  343. Roy S., Parkin N.T., Rosen C., Itovitch J., Sonenberg N. Structural requirements for trans-activation of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 long terminal repeat-directed gene expression by tat: Importance of base pairing, loop sequence, and bulges in the tat-responsive sequence. J. Virol. 1990b;64:1402–1406. [PMC free article: PMC249266] [PubMed: 2406460]
  344. Ruben S., Poteat H., Tan T.-H., Kawakami K., Roeder R., Haseltine W., Rosen C.A. Cellular transcription factors and regulation of IL-2 receptor gene expression by HTLV-I tax gene product. Science. 1988;241:89–92. [PubMed: 2838905]
  345. Ruddell A. Transcription reglatory elements of the avian retroviral long terminal repeat. Virology. 1995;206:1–7. [PubMed: 7831764]
  346. Ruddell A., Linial M.L., Groudine M. Tissue-specific lability and expression of avian leukosis virus long terminal repeat enhancer-binding proteins. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1989;9:5660–5668. [PMC free article: PMC363737] [PubMed: 2555702]
  347. Ruddell A., Linial M., Schubach W., Groudine M. Lability of leukosis virus enhancer-binding proteins in avian hematopoietic cells. J. Virol. 1988;62:2728–2735. [PMC free article: PMC253706] [PubMed: 2839698]
  348. Ruhl M., Himmelspach M., Bahr G.M., Hammerschmid F., Jaksche H., Wolff B., Aschauer H., Farrington G.K., Probst H., Bevac D., Hauber J. Eukaryotic initiation factor 5A is a cellular target of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Rev activation domain mediating trans-activation. J. Cell Biol. 1993;123:1309–1320. [PMC free article: PMC2290910] [PubMed: 8253832]
  349. Russnak R., Ganem D. Sequences 5′ to the polyadenylation signal mediate differential poly(A) site use in hepatitis B viruses. Genes Dev. 1990;4:764–776. [PubMed: 2379828]
  350. Ryden T.A., Beemon K. Avian retroviral long terminal repeats bind CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1989;9:1155–1164. [PMC free article: PMC362706] [PubMed: 2725492]
  351. Ryden T.A., de Mars M., Beemon K. Mutation of the C/EBP bindings sites in the Rous sarcoma virus long terminal repeat and gag enhancers. J. Virol. 1993;67:2862–2870. [PMC free article: PMC237611] [PubMed: 8386280]
  352. Sanfacon H., Hohn T. Proximity to the promoter inhibits recognition of cauliflower mosaic virus polyadenylation signal. Nature. 1990;346:81–84. [PubMed: 2366867]
  353. Schreck R., Meier B., Mannel D.N., Droge W., Baeuerle P.A. Dithiocarbamates as potent inhibitors of nuclear factor κB activation in intact cells. J. Exp. Med. 1992;175:1181–1194. [PMC free article: PMC2119220] [PubMed: 1314883]
  354. Schwartz S., Felber B.K., Pavlakis G.N. Distinct RNA sequences in the gag region of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 decrease RNA stability and inhibit expression in the absence of Rev protein. J. Virol. 1992a;66:150–159. [PMC free article: PMC238270] [PubMed: 1727477]
  355. Schwartz S., Felber B.K., Benko D.M., Fenyo E.-M., Pavlakis G.N. Cloning and functional analysis of multiply spliced mRNA species of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J. Virol. 1990;64:2519–2529. [PMC free article: PMC249427] [PubMed: 2335812]
  356. Schwartz S., Campbell M., Nasioulas G., Harrison J., Felber B.K., Pavlakis G.N. Mutational inactivation of an inhibitory sequence in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 results in Rev-independent gag expression. J Virol. 1992b;66:7176–7182. [PMC free article: PMC240411] [PubMed: 1433510]
  357. Sealy L., Chalkley R. At least two nuclear proteins bind specifically to the Rous sarcoma virus long terminal repeat enhancer. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1987;7:787–798. [PMC free article: PMC365136] [PubMed: 3029568]
  358. Sears R.C., Sealy L. Multiple forms of C/EBPβ bind the EFII enhancer sequence in the Rous sarcoma virus long terminal repeat. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1994;14:4855–4871. [PMC free article: PMC358858] [PubMed: 8007984]
  359. Seiki M., Inoue J.-I., Hidaka M., Yoshida M. Two cis-acting elements responsible for posttranscriptional trans-regulation of gene expression of human T-cell leukemia virus type I. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1988;85:7124–7128. [PMC free article: PMC282136] [PubMed: 3174625]
  360. Selby M.J., Peterlin B.M. trans-Activation by HIV-1 Tat via a heterologous RNA binding protein. Cell. 1990;62:769–776. [PubMed: 2117500]
  361. Selby M.J., Bain E.S., Luciw P.A., Peterlin B.M. Structure, sequence, and position of the stem-loop in tar determine transcriptional elongation by tat through the HIV-1 long terminal repeat. Genes Dev. 1989;3:547–558. [PubMed: 2470647]
  362. Semmes O.J., Jeang K.-T. Mutational analysis of human T-cell leukemia virus I tax: Regions necessary for function determined with 47 mutant proteins. J. Virol. 1992;66:7183–7192. [PMC free article: PMC240413] [PubMed: 1433511]
  363. Sharp P.A. Split genes and RNA splicing. Cell. 1994;77:805–815. [PubMed: 7516265]
  364. Sharp P.A., Marciniak R.A. HIV TAR: An RNA enhancer? Cell. 1989;59:229–230. [PubMed: 2680105]
  365. Sheldon M., Ratnasabapathy R., Hernandez N. Characterization of the inducer of short transcripts, a human immunodeficiency virus type 1 transcriptional element that activates the synthesis of short RNAs. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1993;13:1251–1263. [PMC free article: PMC359010] [PubMed: 8423790]
  366. Sheline C.T., Milocco L.H., Jones K.A. Two distinct nuclear transcription factors recognize loop and bulge residues of the HIV-1 TAR RNA hairpin. Genes Dev. 1991;5:2508–2520. [PubMed: 1752441]
  367. Shen-Ong G.L.C., Morse H.C., Potter M., Mushinski J.F. Two modes of c-myb activation in virus-induced mouse myeloid tumors. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1986;6:380–392. [PMC free article: PMC367527] [PubMed: 3023843]
  368. Shibuya H., Irie K., Ninomiya-Tsuji J., Goebl M., Taniguchi T., Matsumoto K. New human gene encoding a positive modulator of HIV Tat-mediated transactivation. Nature. 1992;358:700–702. [PubMed: 1377363]
  369. Shimotohno K., Takano M., Teruuchi T., Miwa M. Requirement of multiple copies of a 21-nucleotide sequence in the U3 regions of human T-cell leukemia virus type I and type II long terminal repeats for trans-acting activation of transcription. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1986;83:8112–8116. [PMC free article: PMC386877] [PubMed: 3022280]
  370. Siebenlist U., Franzoso G., Brown K. Structure, regulation and function of NF-κB. Annu. Rev. Cell Biol. 1994;10:405–455. [PubMed: 7888182]
  371. Siekevitz M., Feinberg M.B., Holbrook N., Wong-Staal F., Greene W.C. Activation of interleukin 2 and interleukin 2 receptor (Tac) promoter expression by the trans-activator (tat) gene product of human T-cell leukemia virus, type I. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1987a;84:5389–5393. [PMC free article: PMC298861] [PubMed: 3037548]
  372. Siekevitz M., Josephs S.F., Dukovich M., Peffer N., Wong-Staal F., Greene W.C. Activation of the HIV-1 LTR by T cell mitogens and the trans-activator protein of HTLV-I. Science. 1987b;238:1575–1578. [PubMed: 2825351]
  373. Smith C.D., Baglia L.A., Curristin S.M., Ruddell A. The VBP and a1/EBP leucine zipper factors bind overlapping subsets of avian retroviral long terminal repeat CCAAT/ enhancer elements. J. Virol. 1994;68:6232–6242. [PMC free article: PMC237043] [PubMed: 8083963]
  374. Smith M.R., Greene W.C. Identification of HTLV-I tax trans-activator mutants exhibiting novel transcriptional phenotypes. Genes Dev. 1990;4:1875–1885. [PubMed: 2276622]
  375. Smith M.R., Greene W.C. Molecular biology of the type I human T-cell leukemia virus (HTLV-I) and adult T-cell leukemia. J. Clin. Invest. 1991;87:761–766. [PMC free article: PMC329862] [PubMed: 1999493]
  376. Sodroski J., Rosen C., Goh W.C., Haseltine W. A transcriptional activator protein encoded by the x-lor region of the human T-cell leukemia virus. Science. 1985a;228:1430–1434. [PubMed: 2990028]
  377. Sodroski J., Patarca R., Rosen C., Wong-Staal F., Haseltine W. Location of the trans-activating region on the genome of human T-cell lymphotropic virus type III. Science. 1985b;229:74–77. [PubMed: 2990041]
  378. Sodroski J., Goh W.C., Rosen C., Dayton A., Terwilliger E., Haseltine W.A. A second posttranscriptional trans-activator gene required for HTLV-III replication. Nature. 1986;321:412–417. [PubMed: 3012355]
  379. Solomin L., Felber B.K., Pavlakis G.N. Different sites of interaction for Rev, Tev, and Rex proteins within the Rev-responsive element of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J. Virol. 1990;64:6010–6017. [PMC free article: PMC248774] [PubMed: 2243384]
  380. Sorge J., Hughes S.H. Splicing of intervening sequences introduced into an infectious retroviral vector. J. Mol. Appl. Genet. 1982;1:547–559. [PubMed: 6296256]
  381. Southgate C.D., Green M.R. The HIV-1 Tat protein activates transcription from an upstream DNA-binding site: Implications for Tat function. Genes Dev. 1991;5:2496–2507. [PubMed: 1752440]
  382. Southgate C., Zapp M.L., Green M.R. Activation of transcription by HIV-1 Tat protein tethered to nascent RNA through another protein. Nature. 1990;345:640–642. [PubMed: 2190099]
  383. Speck N.A., Baltimore D. Six distinct nuclear factors interact with the 75-base-pair repeat of the Moloney murine leukemia virus enhancer. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1987;7:1101–1110. [PMC free article: PMC365182] [PubMed: 3561410]
  384. Speck N.A., Stacy T. A new transcription factor family associated with human leukemias. CRC Crit. Rev. Eukaryotic Gene Expression. 1995;5:337–364. [PubMed: 8834230]
  385. Speck N.A., Renjifo B., Hopkins N. Point mutations in the Moloney murine leukemia virus enhancer identify a lymphoid-specific viral core motif and 1,3-phorbol myristate acetate-inducible element. J. Virol. 1990a;64:543–550. [PMC free article: PMC249142] [PubMed: 2104942]
  386. Speck N.A., Renjifo B., Golemis E., Fredrickson T.N., Hartley J.W., Hopkins N. Mutation of the core or adjacent LVb elements of the Moloney murine leukemia virus enhancer alters disease specificity. Genes Dev. 1990b;4:233–242. [PubMed: 2338244]
  387. Speers W.C., Gautsch J.W., Dixon F.J. Silent infection of murine embryonal carcinoma cells by Moloney murine leukemia virus. Virology. 1980;105:241–244. [PubMed: 7414951]
  388. Staal F.J., Roederer M., Herzenberg L.A., Herzenberg L.A. Intracellular thiols regulate activation of nuclear factor κB and transcription of human immunodeficiency virus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1990;87:9943–9947. [PMC free article: PMC55290] [PubMed: 2263644]
  389. Staffa A., Cochrane A. Identification of positive and negative splicing regulatory elements withing the terminal tat-rev exon of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1995;15:4597–4605. [PMC free article: PMC230700] [PubMed: 7623851]
  390. Stavenhagen J.B., Robins D.M. An ancient provirus has imposed androgen regulation on the adjacent mouse sex-limited protein gene. Cell. 1988;55:247–254. [PubMed: 3167981]
  391. Steitz T.A. Structure studies of protein-nucleic acid interaction: The sources of sequence-specific binding. Q. Rev. Biophys. 1990;23:205–280. [PubMed: 2204954]
  392. Stewart T.A., Hollingshead P.G., Pitts S.L. Multiple regulatory domains in the mouse mammary tumor virus long terminal repeat revealed by analysis of fusion genes in transgenic mice. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1988;8:473–479. [PMC free article: PMC363153] [PubMed: 2827009]
  393. Stoltzfus C.M. Synthesis and processing of avian sarcoma retrovirus RNA. Adv. Virus Res. 1988;35:1–38. [PubMed: 2852891]
  394. Stoltzfus C.M., Fogarty C.J. Multiple regions in the Rous sarcoma virus src gene intron act in cis to affect the accumulation of unspliced RNA. J. Virol. 1989;63:1669–1676. [PMC free article: PMC248417] [PubMed: 2538650]
  395. Stoye J.P., Moroni C., Coffin J.M. Virological events leading to spontaneous AKR thymomas. J. Virol. 1991;65:1273–1285. [PMC free article: PMC239902] [PubMed: 1847454]
  396. Sun S.-C., Elwood J., Béraud C., Greene W.C. Human T-cell leukemia virus type I Tax activation of NF-κB/Rel involves phosphorylation and degradation of IκBα and RelA (p65)-mediated induction of the c-rel gene. Mol. Cell Biol. 1994;14:7377–7384. [PMC free article: PMC359272] [PubMed: 7935451]
  397. Sun W., Graves B.J., Speck N. Evidence for in vivo cooperation between ets and cbf protein families. J. Virol. 1995;69:4941–4949. [PMC free article: PMC189309] [PubMed: 7609063]
  398. Sun W., O'Connell M., Speck N.A. Characterization of a protein that binds multiple sequences in mammalian type C retroviral enhancers. J. Virol. 1993;67:1976–1986. [PMC free article: PMC240266] [PubMed: 8445719]
  399. Suzuki T., Fujisawa J.-I., Toita M., Yoshida M. The trans-activator Tax of human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1) interacts with cAMP-responsive element (CRE) binding and CRE modulator proteins that bind to the 21-base-pair enhancer of HTLV-1. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1993;90:610–614. [PMC free article: PMC45713] [PubMed: 8421695]
  400. Swain A., Coffin J.M. Polyadenylation at correct sites in genome RNA is not required for retrovirus replication or genome encapsidation. J. Virol. 1989;63:3301–3306. [PMC free article: PMC250902] [PubMed: 2473216]
  401. Tabernero C., Zolotukhin A.S., Valentin A., Pavlakis G.N., Felber B.K. The posttranscriptional control element of the simian retrovirus type 1 forms an extensive RNA secondary structure necessary for its function. J. Virol. 1996;70:5998–6011. [PMC free article: PMC190620] [PubMed: 8709222]
  402. Thompson J.E., Phillips R.J., Erdjument-Bromage H., Tempst P., Ghosh S. IκBβ regulates the persistent response in a biphasic activation of NF-κB. Cell. 1995;80:573–582. [PubMed: 7867065]
  403. Thornell A., Hallberg B., Grundstrom T. Differential protein binding in lymphocytes to a sequence in the enhancer of the mouse retrovirus SL3-3. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1988;8:1625–1637. [PMC free article: PMC363322] [PubMed: 2837650]
  404. Tiley L.S., Malim M.H., Tewary H.K., Stockley P.G., Cullen B.R. Identification of a high-affinity RNA-binding site for the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Rev protein. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1992;89:758–762. [PMC free article: PMC48318] [PubMed: 1731351]
  405. Ting C.-N., Rosenberg M.P., Snow C.M., Samuelson L.C., Meisler M.H. Endogenous retroviral sequences are required for tissue-specific expression of a human salivary amylase gene. Genes Dev. 1992;6:1457–1465. [PubMed: 1379564]
  406. Tjian R., Maniatis T. Transcriptional activation: A complex puzzle with few easy pieces. Cell. 1994;77:5–8. [PubMed: 8156597]
  407. Tong-Starksen S.E., Welsh T.M., Peterlin B.M. Differences in transcriptional enhancers of HIV-1 and HIV-2: Response to T cell activation signals. J. Immunol. 1990;145:4348–4354. [PubMed: 2258623]
  408. Toohey M.G., Jones K.A. In vitro formation of short RNA polymerase II transcripts that terminate within the HIV-1 and HIV-2 promoter-proximal downstream region. Genes Dev. 1989;3:265–282. [PubMed: 2542124]
  409. Toyoshima H., Itoh M., Inoue J.-I., Seiki M., Takaku F., Yoshida M. Secondary structure of the human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 rex-responsive element is essential for rex regulation of RNA processing and transport of unspliced RNAs. J. Virol. 1990;64:2825–2832. [PMC free article: PMC249464] [PubMed: 2335818]
  410. Truss M., Chalepakis G., Pina B., Barettino D., Bruggemeier U., Kalff M., Slater E.P., Beato M. Transcriptional control by steroid hormones. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol. 1992;41:241–248. [PubMed: 1314074]
  411. Tsichlis P.N., Coffin J.M. Recombinants between endogenous and exogenous avian tumor viruses: Role of the C region and other portions of the genome in the control of replication. J. Virol. 1980;33:238–249. [PMC free article: PMC288540] [PubMed: 6245229]
  412. Tsichlis P.N., Lazo P.A. Virus-host interactions and the pathogenesis of murine and human oncogenic retroviruses. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 1991;171:95–171. [PubMed: 1667631]
  413. Tsukiyama T., Wu C. Purification and properties of an ATP-dependent nucleosome remodeling factor. Cell. 1995;83:1011–1020. [PubMed: 8521501]
  414. Tsukiyama T., Ueda H., Hirose S., Niwa O. Embryonal long terminal repeat-binding protein is a murine homolog of FTZ-F1, a member of the steroid receptor superfamily. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1992;12:1286–1291. [PMC free article: PMC369561] [PubMed: 1545809]
  415. Unge T., Solomin L., Mellini M., Derse D., Felber B.K., Pavlakis G.N. The Rex regulatory protein of human T-cell lymphotropic virus type I binds specifically to its target site within the viral RNA. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1991;88:7145–7149. [PMC free article: PMC52250] [PubMed: 1871127]
  416. Vaishnav Y.N., Vaishnav M., Wong-Staal F. Identification and characterization of a nuclear factor that specifically binds to the Rev response element (RRE) of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1). New Biol. 1991;3:142–150. [PubMed: 2065010]
  417. Valsamakis A., Schek N., Alwine J.C. Elements upstream of the AAUAAA within the human immunodeficiency virus polyadenylation signal are required for efficient polyadenylation in vitro. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1992;12:3699–3705. [PMC free article: PMC360226] [PubMed: 1508176]
  418. Van Lint C., Burny A., Verdin E. The intragenic enhancer of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 contains functional AP-1 binding sites. J. Virol. 1991;65:7066–7072. [PMC free article: PMC250832] [PubMed: 1942259]
  419. Varmus H.E., Quintrell N., Ortiz S. Retroviruses as mutagens: Insertion and excision of a nontransforming provirus alters expression of a resident transforming provirus. Cell. 1981;25:23–36. [PubMed: 6268304]
  420. Venkatesan S., Gerstberger S.M., Park H., Holland S.M., Nam Y.-S. Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Rev activation can be achieved without Rev-responsive element RNA if Rev is directed to the target as a Rev/MS2 fusion protein which tethers the MS2 operator RNA. J. Virol. 1992;66:7469–7480. [PMC free article: PMC240455] [PubMed: 1433526]
  421. Venkatesh L.K., Theodorakis P.A., Chinnadurai G. Distinct cis-acting regions in U3 regulate trans-activation of the human spumaretrovirus long terminal repeat by the viral bel1 gene product. Nucleic Acids Res. 1991;19:3661–3666. [PMC free article: PMC328395] [PubMed: 1649456]
  422. Verdin E., Paras P. Jr., Lint C. van. Chromatin disruption in the promoter of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 during transcriptional activation. EMBO J. 1993;12:3249–3259. [PMC free article: PMC413592] [PubMed: 8344262]
  423. Verdin E., Becker N., Bex F., Droogmans L., Burny A. Identification and characterization of an enhancer in the coding region of the genome of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1990;87:4874–4878. [PMC free article: PMC54221] [PubMed: 2352955]
  424. Veschambre P., Simard P., Jalinot P. Evidence for a functional interaction between the HIV-1 Tat trans-activator and the TATA box binding protein in vivo. J. Mol. Biol. 1995;250:169–180. [PubMed: 7608968]
  425. Vittenbogaard M.N., Armstrong A.P., Chiaramello A., Nyborg J.K. Human T-cell leukemia virus type I Tax protein represses gene expression through the basic helix-loop-helix family of transcription factors. J. Biol. Chem. 1994;269:22466–22469. [PubMed: 8077190]
  426. Wagner S., Green M.R. HTLV-I Tax protein stimulation of DNA binding of bZIP proteins by enhancing dimerization. Science. 1993;262:395–399. [PubMed: 8211160]
  427. Wahle E., Keller W. The biochemistry of 3′-end cleavage and polyadenylation of messenger RNA precursors. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 1992;61:419–440. [PubMed: 1353951]
  428. Wang S., Wang Q., Crute B.E., Melnikova I.N., Keller S.R., Speck N.A. Cloning and characterization of subunits of the T-cell receptor and murine leukemia virus enhancer core-binding factor. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1993;13:3324–3339. [PMC free article: PMC359789] [PubMed: 8497254]
  429. Wang Z., Rana T.M. RNA conformation in the Tat-TAR complex determined by site-specific photo-crosslinking. Biochemistry. 1996;35:6491–6499. [PubMed: 8639596]
  430. Wasylyk B., Hahn S.L., Giovane A. The Ets family of transcription factors. Eur. J. Biochem. 1993;211:7–18. [PubMed: 8425553]
  431. Weber F., Schaffner W. Enhancer activity correlates with the oncogenic potential of avian retroviruses. EMBO J. 1985;4:949–956. [PMC free article: PMC554284] [PubMed: 2990916]
  432. Weeks K.M., Crothers D.M. RNA recognition by Tat-derived peptides: Interaction in the major groove? Cell. 1991;66:577–588. [PubMed: 1907891]
  433. Weichs an der Glon C., Monks J., Proudfoot N.J. Occlusion of the HIV poly(A) site. Genes Dev. 1991;5:244–253. [PubMed: 1995416]
  434. Weiher H., Zonig M., Gruss P. Multiple point mutations affecting the simian virus 40 enhancer. Science. 1983;219:626–631. [PubMed: 6297005]
  435. Weiher H., Barklis E., Ostertag W., Jaenisch R. Two distinct sequence elements mediate retroviral gene expression in embryonal carcinoma cells. J. Virol. 1987;61:2742–2746. [PMC free article: PMC255781] [PubMed: 3612950]
  436. Wen W., Meinkoth J.L., Tsien R.Y., Taylor S.S. Identification of a signal for rapid export of proteins from the nucleus. Cell. 1995;82:463–473. [PubMed: 7634336]
  437. Wickens M. How the messenger got its tail: Addition of poly(A) in the nucleus. Trends Biochem. Sci. 1990;15:277–281. [PubMed: 1974368]
  438. Wickens M. Forward, backward, how much, when: Mechanisms of poly(A) addition and removal and their role in early development. Semin. Dev. Biol. 1992;3:399–412.
  439. Willbold D., Rosin-Arbesfeld R., Sticht H., Frank R., Rösch P. Structure of the equine infectious anemia virus Tat protein. Science. 1994;264:1584–1587. [PubMed: 7515512]
  440. Wilson C., Bellen H.J., Gehring W.J. Position effects on eukaryotic gene expression. Annu. Rev. Cell Biol. 1990;6:679–714. [PubMed: 2275824]
  441. Winslow B.J., Pomerantz R.J., Bagasra O., Trono D. HIV-1 latency due to the site of proviral integration. Virology. 1993;196:849–854. [PubMed: 8372452]
  442. Woffendin C., Ranga U., Yang Z.-Y., Xu L., Nabel G.J. Expression of a protective gene prolongs survival of T cells in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1996;93:2889–2894. [PMC free article: PMC39729] [PubMed: 8610137]
  443. Wotton D., Ghysdael J., Wang S., Speck N.A., Owen M.J. Cooperative binding of Ets-1 and core binding factor to DNA. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1994;14:840–850. [PMC free article: PMC358432] [PubMed: 8264651]
  444. Wu F., Garcia J., Sigman D., Gaynor R. Tat regulates binding of the human immunodeficiency virus trans-activating region RNA loop-binding protein TRP-185. Genes Dev. 1991;5:2128–2140. [PubMed: 1936997]
  445. Xu X., H. Kang S., Heidenreich O., Okerholm M., O'Shea J.J., Nerenberg M.I. Constitutive activation of different Jak tyrosine kinases in human T cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1) tax protein or virus-transformed cells. J. Clin. Invest. 1995;96:1548–1555. [PMC free article: PMC185780] [PubMed: 7657825]
  446. Yamauchi M., Freitag B., Khan C., Berwin B., Barklis E. Stem cell factor binding to retrovirus primer binding site silencers. J. Virol. 1995;69:1142–1149. [PMC free article: PMC188687] [PubMed: 7529329]
  447. Yang J.N., Dudley J. Endogenous Mtv-8 or a closely linked sequence stimulates rearrangement of the downstream V κ 9 gene. J. Immunol. 1992;149:1242–1251. [PubMed: 1323611]
  448. Yang X., Herrman C.H., Rice A.P. The human immunodeficiency virus Tat proteins specifically associate with TAK in vivo and require the carboxyl-terminal domain of RNA polymerase II for function. J. Virol. 1996;70:4576–4584. [PMC free article: PMC190394] [PubMed: 8676484]
  449. Yoshida M. Mechanism of transcriptional activation of viral and cellular genes by the oncogenic protein of HTLV-1. Leukemia. 1994;8 (suppl. 1):S51–S53. [PubMed: 8152304]
  450. Yoshida M., Seiki M. Recent advances in the molecular biology of HTLV-I transactivation of viral and cellular genes. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 1987;5:559–559. [PubMed: 2885015]
  451. Yoshimura T., Fujisawa J.-I., Yoshida M. Multiple cDNA clones encoding nuclear proteins that bind to the tax-dependent enhancer of HTLV-I: All contain leucine zipper structure and basic amino acid domain. EMBO J. 1990;9:2537–2542. [PMC free article: PMC552284] [PubMed: 2196176]
  452. Yu L., Lowenstein P.M., Zhang Z., Green M. In vitro interaction of the human immunodeficiency virus type-1 Tat trans-activator and the general transcription factor TFIIB with the cellular protein TAP. J. Virol. 1995;69:3017–3023. [PMC free article: PMC189001] [PubMed: 7707528]
  453. Zachow K.R., Conklin K.F. CArG, CCAAT, and CCAAT-like protein binding sites in avian retrovirus long terminal repeat enhancers. J. Virol. 1992;66:1959–1970. [PMC free article: PMC288984] [PubMed: 1312613]
  454. Zaiman A.L., Lewis A.F., Crute B.E., Speck N.A., Lenz J. Transcriptional activity of core binding factor-α (AML1) and β subunits on murine leukemia virus enhancer cores. J. Virol. 1995;69:2898–2906. [PMC free article: PMC188987] [PubMed: 7707514]
  455. Zapp M.L. The ins and outs of RNA nucleocytoplasmic transport. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 1995;5:229–233. [PubMed: 7542049]
  456. Zapp M.L., Green M.R. Sequence-specific RNA binding by the HIV-1 Rev protein. Nature. 1989;342:714–716. [PubMed: 2556643]
  457. Zapp M.L., Stern S., Green M.R. Small molecules that selectively block RNA binding of HIV-1 Rev protein inhibit Rev function and viral production. Cell. 1993;74:969–978. [PubMed: 8402886]
  458. Zapp M.L., Hope T.J., Parslow T.G., Green M.R. Oligomerization and RNA binding domains of the type 1 human immunodeficiency virus Rev protein: A dual function for an arginine-rich binding motif. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1991;88:7734–7738. [PMC free article: PMC52377] [PubMed: 1715576]
  459. Zhang L., Simpson S.B., Stoltzfus C.M. Selection and characterization of replication-competent revertants of a Rous sarcoma virus src gene oversplicing mutant. J. Virol. 1996;70:3636–3644. [PMC free article: PMC190239] [PubMed: 8648698]
  460. Zhao L.-J., Giam C.-Z. Interaction of the human T-cell lymphotropic virus type I (HTLV-I) transcriptional activator Tax with cellular factors that bind specifically to the 21-base pair repeats in the HTLV-I enhancer. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1991;88:11445–11449. [PMC free article: PMC53152] [PubMed: 1763059]
  461. Zhao L.-J., Giam C.-Z. Human T-cell lymphotropic virus type I (HTLV-1) transcriptional activator, Tax, enhances CREB binding to HTLV-I 21-base-pair repeats by protein-protein interaction. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1992;89:7070–7074. [PMC free article: PMC49647] [PubMed: 1386673]
  462. Zhou Q., Sharp P.A. Novel mechanism and factor for regulation by HIV-1 Tat. EMBO J. 1995;14:321–328. [PMC free article: PMC398086] [PubMed: 7835343]
  463. Zolotukhin A.S., Valentin A., Pavlakis G.N., Felber B.K. Continuous propagation of RRE(–) and Rev(–)RRE(–) human immunodeficiency virus type 1 molecular clones containing a cis- acting element of simian retrovirus type 1 in human peripheral blood lymphocytes. J. Virol. 1994;68:7944–7952. [PMC free article: PMC237257] [PubMed: 7966585]
  464. Zou J.X., Luciw P.A. The transcriptional transactivator of simian foamy virus 1 binds to a DNA target element in the viral internal promoter. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1996;93:326–330. [PMC free article: PMC40231] [PubMed: 8552631]
Copyright © 1997, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press.
Bookshelf ID: NBK19371
Contents

Views

  • PubReader
  • Print View
  • Cite this Page

Related Items in Bookshelf

Related information

  • PMC
    PubMed Central citations
  • PubMed
    Links to PubMed

Recent Activity

ClearTurn OffTurn On

Your browsing activity is empty.

Activity recording is turned off.

Turn recording back on

See more...