U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

NCBI Bookshelf. A service of the National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health.

Coffin JM, Hughes SH, Varmus HE, editors. Retroviruses. Cold Spring Harbor (NY): Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press; 1997.

Cover of Retroviruses

Retroviruses.

Show details

References

  1. Akhatib G., Combadiere C., Broder C.C., Feng Y., Kennedy P.E., Murphy P.M., Berger E.A. CC CKR5: A RANTES, MIP-1α, MIP-1β receptor as a fusion cofactor for macrophage-tropic HIV-1. Science. 1996;272:1955–1958. [PubMed: 8658171]
  2. Albert J., Abrahamsson B., Nagy K., Aurelius E., Gaines H., Nystrom G., Fenyo E.M. Rapid development of isolate-specific neutralizing antibodies after primary HIV-1 infection and consequent emergence of virus variants which resist neutralization by autologous sera. AIDS. 1990;4:107–112. [PubMed: 2328092]
  3. Albrecht J.-C., Nicholas J., Biller D., Cameron K.R., Biesinger B., Newman C., Wittman S., Craxton A., Coleman H., Fleckenstein B., Honess R.W. Primary structure of the herpesvirus saimiri genome. J. Virol. 1992;66:5047–5058. [PMC free article: PMC241364] [PubMed: 1321287]
  4. Aldrovandi G.M., Feuer G., Gao L., Jamieson B., Kristeva M., Chen I.S., Zack J.A. The SCID-hu mouse as a model for HIV-1 infection. Nature. 1993;363:732–736. [PubMed: 8515816]
  5. Alizon M., Wain-Hobson S., Montagnier L., Sonigo P. Genetic variability of the AIDS virus: Nucleotide sequence analysis of two isolates from African patients. Cell. 1986;46:63–74. [PubMed: 2424612]
  6. Allan J.S. Viral evolution and AIDS. J. NIH Res. 1992;4:51–54.
  7. Allan J.S., Short M., Taylor M.E., Su S., Hirsch V.M., Johnson P.R., Shaw G.M., Hahn B.H. Species-specific diversity among simian immunodeficiency viruses from African green monkeys. J. Virol. 1991;65:2816–2828. [PMC free article: PMC240900] [PubMed: 2033656]
  8. Amadori A., De Silvestro G., Zamarchi R., Veronese M.L., Mazza M.R., Schiavo G., Panozzo M., De Rossi A., Ometto L., Mous J., Barelli A., Borri A., Salmaso L., Chieco-Bianchi L. CD4 epitope masking by gp120/anti-gp120 antibody complexes. A potential mechanism for CD4+ cell function downregulation in AIDS patients. J. Immunol. 1992;148:2709–2716. [PubMed: 1374095]
  9. Ameisen J.C., Capron A. Cell dysfunction and depletion in AIDS: The programmed cell death hypothesis. Immunol. Today. 1991;12:102–105. [PubMed: 1676268]
  10. Anderson S., Shugars D.C., Swanstrom R., Garcia J.V. Nef from primary isolates of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 suppresses surface CD4 expression in human and mouse T cells. J. Virol. 1993;67:4923–4931. [PMC free article: PMC237880] [PubMed: 8331733]
  11. Ardman B., Sikorski M.A., Settles M., Staunton D.E. Human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected individuals make autoantibodies that bind to CD43 on normal thymic lymphocytes. J. Exp. Med. 1990a;172:1151–1158. [PMC free article: PMC2188598] [PubMed: 1976735]
  12. Ardman B., Mayer K., Bristol J., Ryan M., Settles M., Levy E. Surface immunoglobulin-positive T lymphocytes in HIV-1 infection: Relationship to CD4+ lymphocyte depletion. Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol. 1990b;56:249–258. [PubMed: 1974180]
  13. Ascher M.S., Sheppard H.W. AIDS as immune system activation. II. The panergic imnesia hypothesis. J. Acquired Immune Defic. Syndr. 1990;3:177–191. [PubMed: 2404100]
  14. Auger I., Thomas P., De Gruttola V., Morse D., Moore D., Williams R., Truman B., Lawrence C.E. Incubation periods for paediatric AIDS patients. Nature. 1988;336:575–577. [PubMed: 3200305]
  15. Baenziger J., Hengartner H., Zinkernagel R.M., Cole G.A. Induction or prevention of immunopathological disease by cloned cytotoxic T cell lines specific for lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus. Eur. J. Immunol. 1986;16:387–393. [PubMed: 3084281]
  16. Bagasra O., Pomerantz R.J. Human immunodeficiency virus type I provirus is demonstrated in peripheral blood monocytes in vivo: A study utilizing an in situ polymerase chain reaction. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses. 1993;9:69–76. [PubMed: 8427715]
  17. Bagasra O., Hauptman S.P., Lischner H.W., Sachs M., Pomerantz R.J. Detection of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 provirus in mononuclear cells by in situ polymerase chain reaction. N. Engl. J. Med. 1992;326:1385–1391. [PubMed: 1569974]
  18. Balfe P., Simmonds P., Ludlam C.A., Bishop J.O., Brown A.J. Concurrent evolution of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in patients infected from the same source: Rate of sequence change and low frequency of inactivating mutations. J. Virol. 1990;64:6221–6233. [PMC free article: PMC248797] [PubMed: 2123011]
  19. Banapour B., Marthas M.L., Ramos R.A., Lohman B.L., Unger R.E., Gardner M.B., Pedersen N.C., Luciw P.A. Identification of viral determinants of macrophage tropism for simian immunodeficiency virus SIVmac. J. Virol. 1991;65:5798–5805. [PMC free article: PMC250241] [PubMed: 1920617]
  20. Banda N.K., Bernier J., Kurahara D.K., Kurrle R., Haigwood N., Sékaly R.P., Finkel T.H. Crosslinking CD4 by human immunodeficiency virus gp120 primes T cells for activation-induced apoptosis. J. Exp. Med. 1992;176:1099–1106. [PMC free article: PMC2119378] [PubMed: 1402655]
  21. Barré-Sinoussi F., Chermann J.C., Rey F., Nugeyre M.T., Chamaret S., Gruest J., Dauguet C., Axler-Blin C., Vezinet-Brun F., Rouzioux C., Rozenbaum W., Montagnier L. Isolation of a T-lymphotropic retrovirus from a patient at risk for acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). Science. 1983;220:868–871. [PubMed: 6189183]
  22. Bates P. Chemokine receptors and HIV-1: An attractive pair? Cell. 1996;86:1–3. [PubMed: 8689676]
  23. Benjouad A., Gluckman J.C., Rochat H., Montagnier L., Bahraoui E. Influence of carbohydrate moieties on the immunogenicity of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 recombinant gp160. J. Virol. 1992;66:2473–2483. [PMC free article: PMC289043] [PubMed: 1347797]
  24. Benson R.E., Sanfridson A., Ottinger J.S., Doyle C., Cullen B.R. Downregulation of cell-surface CD4 expression by simian immunodeficiency virus Nef prevents viral super infection. J. Exp. Med. 1993;177:1561–1566. [PMC free article: PMC2191034] [PubMed: 8098729]
  25. Beral V., Peterman T.A., Berkelman R.L., Jaffe H.W. Kaposi's sarcoma among persons with AIDS: A sexually transmitted infection? Lancet. 1990;335:123–128. [PubMed: 1967430]
  26. Beral V., Bull D., Darby S., Weller I., Carne C., Beecham M., Jaffe H. Risk of Kaposi's sarcoma and sexual practices associated with faecal contact in homosexual or bisexual men with AIDS. Lancet. 1992;339:632–635. [PubMed: 1347337]
  27. Berberian L., Goodglick L., Kipps T.J., Braun J. Immunoglobulin VH3 gene products: Natural ligands for HIV gp120. Science. 1993;261:1588–1591. [PubMed: 7690497]
  28. Bevan M.J., Braciale T.J. Why can't cytotoxic T cells handle HIV? Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1995;92:5765–5767. [PMC free article: PMC41581] [PubMed: 7597026]
  29. Bhat S., Spitalnik S.L., Gonzalez-Scarano F., Silberberg D.H. Galactosyl ceramide or a derivative is an essential component of the neural receptor for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 envelope glycoprotein gp120. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1991;88:7131–7134. [PMC free article: PMC52247] [PubMed: 1871126]
  30. Biswas P., Poli G., Orenstein J.M., Fauci A.S. Cytokine-mediated induction of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) expression and cell death in chronically infected U1 cells: Do tumor necrosis factor α and γ interferon selectively kill HIV-infected cells? J. Virol. 1994;68:2598–2604. [PMC free article: PMC236737] [PubMed: 7511175]
  31. Bjorling E., Broliden K., Bernardi D., Utter G., Thorstensson R., Chiodi F., Norrby E. Hyperimmune antisera against synthetic peptides representing the glycoprotein of human immunodeficiency virus type 2 can mediate neutralization and antibody-dependent cytotoxic activity. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1991;88:6082–6086. [PMC free article: PMC52026] [PubMed: 2068087]
  32. Bleul C.C., Farzan M., Choe H., Parolin C., Clark-Lewis I., Sodroski J., Springer T.A. The lymphocyte chemooattractant SDF-1 is a ligand for LESTR/fusin and blocks HIV-1 entry. Nature. 1996;382:829–833. [PubMed: 8752280]
  33. Bonyhadi M.L., Rabin L., Salimi S., Brown D.A., Kosek J., McCune J.M., Kaneshima H. HIV induces thymus depletion in vivo. Nature. 1993;363:728–732. [PubMed: 8100043]
  34. Botarelli P., Houlden B.A., Haigwood N.L., Servis C., Montagna D., Abrignani S. N-glycosylation of HIV-gp120 may constrain recognition by T lymphocytes. J. Immunol. 1991;147:3128–3132. [PubMed: 1717587]
  35. Boyer V., Desgranges C., Trabaud M.A., Fischer E., Kazatchkine M.D. Complement mediates human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection of a human T cell line in a CD4 and antibody-independent fashion. J. Exp. Med. 1991;173:1151–1158. [PMC free article: PMC2118846] [PubMed: 1827139]
  36. Brettle R.P., Leen C.L. The natural history of HIV and AIDS in women. AIDS. 1991;5:1283–1292. [PubMed: 1768376]
  37. Burns D.P., Desrosiers R.C. Selection of genetic variants of simian immunodeficiency virus in persistently infected rhesus monkeys. J. Virol. 1991;65:1843–1854. [PMC free article: PMC239994] [PubMed: 2002545]
  38. Burns D.P., Desrosiers R.C. Envelope sequence variation, neutralizing antibodies, and primate lentivirus persistence. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 1994;188:185–219. [PubMed: 7523031]
  39. Burns D.P., Collignon C., Desrosiers R.C. Simian immunodeficiency virus mutants resistant to serum neutralization arise during persistent infection of rhesus monkeys. J. Virol. 1993;67:4104–4113. [PMC free article: PMC237779] [PubMed: 8510218]
  40. Cao Y., Qin L., Zhang L., Safrit J., Ho D.D. Virologic and immunologic characterization of long-term survivors of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. N. Engl. J. Med. 1995;332:201–208. [PubMed: 7808485]
  41. Carr J.K., Salminen M.O., Koch C., Gotte D., Artenstein A.W., Hegerich P.A., St. Louis D., Burke D.S., McCutchan F.E. Full-length sequence and mosaic structure of a human immunodeficiency virus type 1 isolate from Thailand. J. Virol. 1996;70:5935–5943. [PMC free article: PMC190613] [PubMed: 8709215]
  42. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. USPHS/IDSA guidelines for the prevention of opportunistic infections in persons infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 1997;46 (no. RR-12):1–55. [PubMed: 9214702]
  43. Cesarman E., Chang Y., Moore P.S., Said J.W., Knowles D.M. Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus-like DNA sequences in AIDS-related body-cavity-based lymphomas. N. Engl. J. Med. 1995;332:1186–1191. [PubMed: 7700311]
  44. Chakrabarti L., Hurtrel M., Maire M.A., Vazeux R., Dormont D., Montagnier L., Hurtrel B. Early viral replication in the brain of SIV-infected rhesus monkeys. Am. J. Pathol. 1991;139:1273–1280. [PMC free article: PMC1886455] [PubMed: 1750503]
  45. Chang Y., Cesarman E., Pessin M.S., Culpepper J., Knowles D.M., Moore P.S. Identification of herpes virus-like sequences in AIDS-associated Kaposi's sarcomas. Science. 1994;266:1865–1869. [PubMed: 7997879]
  46. Chehimi J., Starr S.E., Frank I., Rengaraju M., Jackson S.J., Llanes C., Kobayashi M., Perussia B., Young D., Nickbarg E. Natural killer (NK) cell stimulatory factor increases the cytotoxic activity of NK cells from both healthy donors and human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients. J. Exp. Med. 1992;175:789–796. [PMC free article: PMC2119140] [PubMed: 1346797]
  47. Chen M.Y., Maldarelli F., Karczewski M.K., Willey R.L., Strebel K. Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Vpu protein induces degradation of CD4 in vitro: The cytoplasmic domain of CD4 contributes to Vpu sensitivity. J. Virol. 1993;67:3877–3884. [PMC free article: PMC237753] [PubMed: 8510209]
  48. Cheng-Mayer C., Shioda T., Levy J.A. Host range, replicative, and cytopathic properties of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 are determined by very few amino acid changes in tat and gp120. J. Virol. 1991;65:6931–6941. [PMC free article: PMC250799] [PubMed: 1658383]
  49. Cheng-Mayer C., Seto D., Tateno M., Levy J.A. Biologic features of HIV-1 that correlate with virulence in the host. Science. 1988;240:80–82. [PubMed: 2832945]
  50. Chesebro B., Buller R., Portis J., Wehrly K. Failure of human immunodeficiency virus entry and infection in CD4-positive human brain and skin cells. J. Virol. 1990;64:215–221. [PMC free article: PMC249089] [PubMed: 2293663]
  51. Chirmule N., Kalyanaraman V.S., Saxinger C., Wong-Staal F., Ghrayeb J., Pahwa S. Localization of B-cell stimulatory activity of HIV-1 to the carboxyl terminus of gp41. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses. 1990;6:299–305. [PubMed: 2187499]
  52. Choe H., Farzan M., Sun Y., Sullivan N., Rollins B., Ponath P.D., Wu L., Mackay C.R., LaRosa G., Newman W., Gerard N., Gerard C., Sodroski J. The β-chemokine receptors CCR3 and CCR5 facilitate infection by primary HIV-1 isolates. Cell. 1996;85:1135–1148. [PubMed: 8674119]
  53. Clark S.J., Shaw G.M. The acute retroviral syndrome and the pathogenesis of HIV-1 infection. Semin. Immunol. 1993;5:149–155. [PubMed: 8347840]
  54. Clark S.J., Saag M.S., Decker W.D., Campbell-Hill S., Roberson J.L., Veldkamp P.J., Kappes J.C., Hahn B.H., Shaw G.M. High titers of cytopathic virus in plasma of patients with symptomatic primary HIV-1 infection. N. Engl. J. Med. 1991;324:954–960. [PubMed: 1900576]
  55. Clerici M., Shearer G. A Th1-Th2 switch is a critical step in the etiology of HIV infection. Immunol. Today. 1993;14:107–111. [PubMed: 8096699]
  56. Clouse K.A., Robbins P.B., Fernie B., Ostrove J.M., Fauci A.S. Viral antigen stimulation of the production of human monokines capable of regulating HIV1 expression. J. Immunol. 1989a;143:470–475. [PubMed: 2544645]
  57. Clouse K.A., Cosentino L.M., Weih K.A., Pyle S.W., Robbins P.B., Hochstein H.D., Natarajan V., Farrar W.L. The HIV-1 gp120 envelope protein has the intrinsic capacity to stimulate monokine secretion. J. Immunol. 1991;147:2892–2901. [PubMed: 1918997]
  58. Clouse K.A., Powell D., Washington I., Poli G., Strebel K., Farrar W., Barstad P., Kovacs J., Fauci A.S., Folks T.M. Monokine regulation of human immunodeficiency virus-1 expression in a chronically infected human T cell clone. J. Immunol. 1989b;142:431–438. [PubMed: 2463307]
  59. Cocchi F., DeVico A.L., Garzino-Demo A., Arya S.K., Gallo R.C., Lusso P. Identification of RANTES, MIP-1α, and MIP-1β as the major suppressive factors produced by CD8+ T cells. Science. 1995;270:1811–1815. [PubMed: 8525373]
  60. Cocchi F., DeVico A.L., Garzino-Demo A., Cara A., Gallo R.C., Lusso P. The V3 domain of the HIV-1 gp120 envelope glycoprotein is critical for chemokine-mediated blockade of infection. Nat. Med. 1996;2:1244–1247. [PubMed: 8898753]
  61. Coffin J.M. Genetic variation in AIDS viruses. Cell. 1986;46:1–4. [PubMed: 3013415]
  62. Coffin J.M. HIV population dynamics in vivo: Implications for genetic variation, pathogenesis, and therapy. Science. 1995;267:483–489. [PubMed: 7824947]
  63. Connor R.I., Mohri H., Cao Y., Ho D.D. Increased viral burden and cytopathicity correlate temporally with CD4+ T-lymphocyte decline and clinical progression in human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected individuals. J. Virol. 1993;67:1772–1777. [PMC free article: PMC240220] [PubMed: 8095306]
  64. Cooper D.A., Imrie A.A., Penny R. Antibody response to human immunodeficiency virus after primary infection. J. Infect. Dis. 1987;155:1113–1118. [PubMed: 3553344]
  65. Cooper D.A., Tindall B., Wilson E.J., Imrie A.A., Penny R. Characterization of T lymphocyte responses during primary infection with human immunodeficiency virus. J. Infect. Dis. 1988;157:889–896. [PubMed: 2966211]
  66. Corbeil J., Evans L.A., Vasak E., Cooper D.A., Penny R. Culture and properties of cells derived from Kaposi sarcoma. J. Immunol. 1991;146:2972–2976. [PubMed: 2016533]
  67. Costello C. Haematological abnormalities in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) disease. J. Clin. Pathol. 1988;41:711–715. [PMC free article: PMC1141573] [PubMed: 3045157]
  68. Curtis B.M., Scharnowske S., Watson A.J. Sequence and expression of a membrane-associated C-type lectin that exhibits CD4-independent binding of human immunodeficiency virus envelope glycoprotein gp120. Proc. Natl. Acad Sci. 1992;89:8356–8360. [PMC free article: PMC49917] [PubMed: 1518869]
  69. Daar E.S., Moudgil T., Meyer R.D., Ho D.D. Transient high levels of viremia in patients with primary human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. N. Engl. J. Med. 1991;324:961–964. [PubMed: 1823118]
  70. Dalgleish A.G., Beverley P.C., Clapham P.R., Crawford D.H., Greaves M.F., Weiss R.A. The CD4 (T4) antigen is an essential component of the receptor for the AIDS retrovirus. Nature. 1984;312:763–767. [PubMed: 6096719]
  71. Dalgleish A.G., Wilson S., Gompels M., Ludlam C., Gazzard B., Coates A.M., Habeshaw J. T-cell receptor variable gene products and early HIV-1 infection. Lancet. 1992;339:824–828. [PubMed: 1347855]
  72. Daniel M.D., Kirchhoff F., Czajak S.C., Sehgal P.K., Desrosiers R.C. Protective effects of a live attentuated SIV vaccine with a deletion in the nef gene. Science. 1992;258:1938–1941. [PubMed: 1470917]
  73. Daniel M.D., Letvin N.L., Sehgal P.K., Hunsmann G., Schmidt D.K., King N.W., Desrosiers R.C. Long-term persistent infection of macaque monkeys with the simian immunodeficiency virus. J. Gen. Virol. 1987;68:3183–3189. [PubMed: 2826656]
  74. Daniel M.D., Letvin N.L., King N.W., Kannagi M., Sehgal P.K., Hunt R.D., Kanki P.J., Essex M., Desrosiers R.C. Isolation of T-cell tropic HTLV-III-like retrovirus from macaques. Science. 1985;228:1201–1204. [PubMed: 3159089]
  75. Deacon N.J., Tyskin A., Solomon A., Smith K., Ludford-Menting M., Hooker D.J., McPhee D.A., Greenway A.L., Ellet A., Chatfield C., Lawson V.A., Crowe S., Maerz A., Sonza S., Learmont J., Sullivan J.S., Cunningham A., Dwyer D., Dowton D., Mills J. Genomic structure of an attenuated quasi species of HIV-1 from a blood transfusion donor and recipients. Science. 1995;270:988–991. [PubMed: 7481804]
  76. Dean M., Carrington M., Winkler C., Huttley G.A., Smith M.W., Allikmets R., Goedert J.J., Buchbinder S.P., Vittinghoff E., Gomperts E., Donfield S., Vlahov E., Kaslow R., Saah A., Rinaldo C., Detels R., O'Brien S.J. Hemaphilia Growth and Development Study; Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study; Multicenter Hemophilia Cohort Study; San Francisco City Cohort; ALIVE Study. Genetic restriction of HIV-1 infection and progression to AIDS by a deletion allele of the CKR5 structural gene. Science. 1996;273:1856–1862. [PubMed: 8791590]
  77. de Jong J.J., Goudsmit J., Keulen W., Klaver B., Krone W., Tersmette M., de Ronde A. Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 clones chimeric for the envelope V3 domain differ in syncytium formation and replication capacity. J. Virol. 1992;66:757–765. [PMC free article: PMC240775] [PubMed: 1731110]
  78. Deng H., Liu R., Ellmeier W., Choe S., Unutmaz D., Burkhart M., Di Marzio P., Marmon S., Sutton R.E., Hill C.M., Davis C.B., Peiper S.C., Schall T.J., Littman D.R., Landau N.R. Identification of a major coreceptor for primary isolates of HIV-1. Nature. 1996;381:661–666. [PubMed: 8649511]
  79. Desrosiers R.C. The simian immunodeficiency viruses. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 1990a;8:557–578. [PubMed: 2188674]
  80. Desrosiers R.C. HIV-1 origins. A finger on the missing link. Nature. 1990b;345:288–289. [PubMed: 2342562]
  81. Desrosiers R.C., Letvin N.L. Animal models for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Rev. Infect. Dis. 1987;9:438–446. [PubMed: 3037674]
  82. Desrosiers R.C., Hansen-Moosa A., Mori K., Bouvier D.P., King N.W., Daniel M.D., Ringler D.J. Macrophage-tropic variants of SIV are associated with specific AIDS-related lesions but are not essential for the development of AIDS. Am. J. Pathol. 1991;139:29–35. [PMC free article: PMC1886139] [PubMed: 1853937]
  83. de Vincenzi I. A longitudinal study of human immunodeficiency virus transmission by heterosexual partners. European Study Group on Heterosexual Transmission of HIV (comments). N. Engl. J. Med. 1994;331:341–346. [PubMed: 8028613]
  84. Doranz B.J., Rucker J., Yi Y., Smyth R.J., Samson M., Peiper S.C., Parmentier M., Collman R.G., Doms R.W. A dual-tropic primary HIV-1 isolate that uses fusin and the β-chemokine receptors CKR-5, CKR-3, and CKR-2b as fusion cofactors. Cell. 1996;85:1149–1158. [PubMed: 8674120]
  85. Doyle C., Strominger J.L. Interaction between CD4 and class II MHC molecules mediates cell adhesion. Nature. 1987;330:256–259. [PubMed: 2823150]
  86. Dragic T., Litwin V., Allaway G.P., Martin S.R., Huang Y., Nagasha K.A., Cayanan C., Maddon P.J., Koup R.A., Moore J.P., Paxton W.A. HIV-1 entry into CD4+ cells is mediated by the chemokine receptor CC-CKR-5. Nature. 1996;381:667–673. [PubMed: 8649512]
  87. Du Z., Lang S.M., Sasseville V.G., Lackner A.A., Ilyinskii P.O., Daniel M.D., Jung J.U., Desrosiers R.C. Identification of a nef allele that causes lymphocyte activation and acute disease in macaque monkeys. Cell. 1995;82:665–674. [PubMed: 7664345]
  88. Dunn D.T., Newell M.L., Ades A.E., Peckham C.S. Risk of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 transmission through breastfeeding (comments). Lancet. 1992;340:585–588. [PubMed: 1355163]
  89. Dupin N., Grandadam M., Calvez V., Gorin I., Aubin J.T., Havard S., Lamy F., Leibowitch M., Huraux J.M., Escande J.P., Agut H. Herpesvirus-like DNA sequences in patients with Mediterranean Kaposi's sarcoma. Lancet. 1995;345:761–762. [PubMed: 7891488]
  90. Ebenbichler C.F., Thielens N.M., Vornhagen R., Marschang P., Arlaud G.J., Dierich M.P. Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 activates the classical pathway of complement by direct C1 binding through specific sites in the transmembrane glycoprotein gp41. J. Exp. Med. 1991;174:1417–1424. [PMC free article: PMC2119058] [PubMed: 1744579]
  91. Eichberg J.W., Zarling J.M., Alter H.J., Levy J.A., Berman P.W., Gregory T., Lasky L.A., McClure J., Cobb K.E., Moran P.A., Hu S.-L., Kennedy R.C., Chanh T.C., Dreesman G.R. T-cell responses to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and its recombinant antigens in HIV-infected chimpanzees. J. Virol. 1987;61:3804–3808. [PMC free article: PMC255996] [PubMed: 3500328]
  92. Eiden L.E., Lifson J.D. HIV interactions with CD4: A continuum of conformations and consequences. Immunol. Today. 1992;13:201–206. [PubMed: 1627247]
  93. Embretson J., Zupancic M., Ribas J.L., Burke A., Racz P., Tenner-Racz K., Haase A.T. Massive covert infection of helper T lymphocytes and macrophages by HIV during the incubation period of AIDS. Nature. 1993a;362:359–362. [PubMed: 8096068]
  94. Embretson J., Zupancic M., Beneke J., Till M., Wolinsky S., Ribas J.L., Burke A., Haase A.T. Analysis of human immunodeficiency virus-infected tissues by amplification and in situ hybridization reveals latent and permissive infections at single-cell resolution. Proc. Natl. Acad Sci. 1993b;90:357–361. [PMC free article: PMC45659] [PubMed: 8419941]
  95. Emini E.A., Schleif W.A., Nunberg J.H., Conley A.J., Eda Y., Tokiyoshi S., Putney S.D., Matsushita S., Cobb K.E., Jett C.M., Eichberg J.W., Murthy K.K. Prevention of HIV-1 infection in chimpanzees by gp120 V3 domain-specific monoclonal antibody. Nature. 1992;355:728–730. [PubMed: 1741059]
  96. Endres M.J., Clapham P.R., Marsh M., Ahuja M., Turner J.D., McKnight A., Thomas J.F., Stoebenau-Haggarty B., Choe S., Vance P.J., Wells T.N.C., Doms R.W., Landau N.R., Hoxie J.A. CD4-independent infection by HIV-2 is mediated by fusin/CXCR4. Cell. 1996;87:745–756. [PubMed: 8929542]
  97. Ensoli B., Buonaguro L., Barillari G., Fiorelli V., Gendelman R., Morgan R.A., Wingfield P., Gallo R.C. Release, uptake, and effects of extracellular human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Tat protein on cell growth and viral transactivation. J. Virol. 1993;67:277–287. [PMC free article: PMC237361] [PubMed: 8416373]
  98. Ensoli B., Nakamura S., Salahuddin S.Z., Biberfeld P., Larsson L., Beaver B., Wong-Staal F., Gallo R.C. AIDS-Kaposi's sarcoma-derived cells express cytokines with autocrine and paracrine growth effects. Science. 1989;243:223–226. [PubMed: 2643161]
  99. Espinoza L.R., Aguilar J.L., Berman A., Gutierrez F., Vasey F.B., Germain B.F. Rheumatic manifestations associated with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Arthritis Rheum. 1989;32:1615–1622. [PubMed: 2688661]
  100. Fantini J., Cook D.G., Nathanson N., Spitalnik S.L., Gonzalez-Scarano F. Infection of colonic epithelial cell lines by type 1 human immunodeficiency virus is associated with cell surface expression of galactosylceramide, a potential alternative gp120 receptor. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1993;90:2700–2704. [PMC free article: PMC46163] [PubMed: 8464878]
  101. Fauci A.S. The human immunodeficiency virus: Infectivity and mechanisms of pathogenesis. Science. 1988;239:617–622. [PubMed: 3277274]
  102. Fauci A.S. Multifactorial nature of human immunodeficiency virus disease: Implications for therapy. Science. 1993;262:1011–1018. [PubMed: 8235617]
  103. Fauci A.S., Lane H.C. 1991The acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) In Harrison's principles of internal medicine, 12th edition (ed. J.D. Wilson et al.), pp. 1402–1410. McGraw-Hill, New York.
  104. Fauci A.S., Lane H.C. 1997Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) disease: AIDS and related disorders In Harrison's principles of internal medicine (ed. A.S. Fauci et al.), pp. 1791–1856. McGraw-Hill, New York.
  105. Fauci A.S., Rosenberg Z.F. 1994Immunopathogenesis In Textbook of AIDS medicine (ed. S. Broder et al.), pp. 55–75. Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore.
  106. Fauci A.S., Pantaleo G., Stanley S., Weissman D. Immunopathogenic mechanisms of HIV infection. Ann. Intern. Med. 1996;124:654–663. [PubMed: 8607594]
  107. Feichtinger H., Kaaya E., Putkonen P., Li S.L., Ekman M., Gendelman R., Biberfeld G., Biberfeld P. Malignant lymphoma associated with human AIDS and with SIV-induced immunodeficiency in macaques. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses. 1992;8:339–348. [PubMed: 1571194]
  108. Feng Y., Broder C.C., Kennedy P.E., Berger E.A. HIV-1 entry cofactor: Functional cDNA cloning of a seven-transmembrane, protein-coupled receptor. Science. 1996;272:872–877. [PubMed: 8629022]
  109. Finkel T.H., Tudor-Williams G., Banda N.K., Cotton M.F., Curiel T., Monks C., Baba T.W., Ruprecht R.M., Kupfer A. Apoptosis occurs predominantly in bystander cells and not in productively infected cells of HIV- and SIV-infected lymph nodes. Nat. Med. 1995;1:129–134. [PubMed: 7585008]
  110. Fisher A.G., Ratner L., Mitsuya H., Marselle L.M., Harper M.E., Broder S., Gallo R.C., Wong-Staal F. Infectious mutants of HTLV-III with changes in the 3′ region and markedly reduced cytopathic effects. Science. 1986;233:655–659. [PubMed: 3014663]
  111. Fisher A.G., Ensoli B., Looney D., Rose A., Gallo R.C., Saag M.S., Shaw G.M., Hahn B.H., Wong-Staal F. Biologically diverse molecular variants within a single HIV-1 isolate. Nature. 1988;334:444–447. [PubMed: 2841608]
  112. Folks T.M., Kessler S.W., Orenstein J.M., Justement J.S., Jaffe E.S., Fauci A.S. Infection and replication of HIV-1 in purified progenitor cells of normal human bone marrow. Science. 1988;242:919–922. [PubMed: 2460922]
  113. Folks T.M., Clouse K.A., Justement J., Rabson A., Duh E., Kehrl J.H., Fauci A.S. Tumor necrosis factor α induces expression of human immunodeficiency virus in a chronically infected T-cell clone. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1989;86:2365–2368. [PMC free article: PMC286913] [PubMed: 2784570]
  114. Fouchier R.A., Groenink M., Kootstra N.A., Tersmette M., Huisman H.G., Miedema F., Schuitemaker H. Phenotype-associated sequence variation in the third variable domain of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 gp120 molecule. J. Virol. 1992;66:3183–3187. [PMC free article: PMC241084] [PubMed: 1560543]
  115. Fox C.H., Kotler D., Tierney A., Wilson C.S., Fauci A.S. Detection of HIV-1 RNA in the lamina propria of patients with AIDS and gastrointestinal disease. J. Infect. Dis. 1989;159:467–471. [PubMed: 2915167]
  116. Freed E.O., Risser R. Identification of conserved residues in the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 principal neutralizing determinant that are involved in fusion. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses. 1991;7:807–811. [PubMed: 1720627]
  117. Fultz P.N. Replication of an acutely lethal simian immunodeficiency virus activates and induces proliferation of lymphocytes. J. Virol. 1991;65:4902–4909. [PMC free article: PMC248951] [PubMed: 1870205]
  118. Gaines H., von Sydow M.A., von Stedingk L.V., Biberfeld G., Bottiger B., Hansson L.O., Lundbergh P., Sonnerborg A.B., Wasserman J., Strannegaard O.O. Immunological changes in primary HIV-1 infection. AIDS. 1990;4:995–999. [PubMed: 2261128]
  119. Gaines H., Sonnerborg A., Czajkowski J., Chiodi F., Fenyo E.M., von Sydow M., Albert J., Pehrson P.O., Moberg L., Asjo B., Forsgren M. Antibody response in primary human immunodeficiency virus infection. Lancet. 1987;I:1249–1253. [PubMed: 2884379]
  120. Gao F., Yue L., White A.T., Pappas P.G., Barchue J., Hanson A.P., Greene B.M., Sharp P.M., Shaw G.M., Hahn B.H. Human infection by genetically diverse SIVsm-related HIV-2 in west Africa. Nature. 1992;358:495–499. [PubMed: 1641038]
  121. Gao F., Robertson D.L., Morrison S.G., Hui H., Craig S., Decker J., Fultz P.N., Giarard M., Shaw G.M., Hahn B.H., Sharp P.M. The heterosexual human immunodeficiency virus type 1 epidemic in Thailand is caused by an intersubtype (A/E) recombinant of African origin. J. Virol. 1996;70:7013–7029. [PMC free article: PMC190752] [PubMed: 8794346]
  122. Gao F., Yue L., Robertson D.L., Hill S.C., Hui H., Biggar R.J., Neequaye A.E., Whelan T.M., Ho D.D., Shaw G.M., Sharp P.M., Hahn B.H. Genetic diversity of human immunodeficiency virus type 2: Evidence for distinct sequence subtypes with differences in virus biology. J. Virol. 1994;68:7433–7447. [PMC free article: PMC237186] [PubMed: 7933127]
  123. Garcia J.V., Alfano J., Miller A.D. The negative effect of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Nef on cell surface CD4 expression is not species specific and requires the cytoplasmic domain of CD4. J. Virol. 1993;67:1511–1516. [PMC free article: PMC237521] [PubMed: 8437228]
  124. Gartner S., Markovits P., Markovitz D.M., Betts R.F., Popovic M. Virus isolation from and identification of HTLV-III/LAV-producing cells in brain tissue from a patient with AIDS. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 1986;256:2365–2371. [PubMed: 3490587]
  125. Gay D., Maddon P., Sékaly R., Talle M.A., Godfrey M., Long E., Goldstein G., Chess L., Axel R., Kappler J., Marrack P. Functional interaction between human T-cell protein CD4 and the major histocompatibility complex HLA-DR antigen. Nature. 1987;328:626–629. [PubMed: 3112582]
  126. Geleziunas R., Schipper H.M., Wainberg M.A. Pathogenesis and therapy of HIV-1 infection of the central nervous system. AIDS. 1992;6:1411–1426. [PubMed: 1337255]
  127. Gendelman H.E., Narayan O., Molineaux S., Clements J.E., Ghotbi Z. Slow, persistent replication of lentiviruses: Role of tissue macrophages and macrophage precursors in bone marrow. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1985;82:7086–7090. [PMC free article: PMC391315] [PubMed: 2996004]
  128. Gendelman H.E., Orenstein J.M., Baca L.M., Weiser B., Burger H., Kalter D.C., Meltzer M.S. The macrophage in the persistence and pathogenesis of HIV infection. AIDS. 1989;3:475–495. [PubMed: 2508709]
  129. Giorgi J.V., Liu Z., Hultin L.E., Cumberland W.G., Hennessey K., Detels R. Elevated levels of CD38+CD8+ T cells in HIV infection add to the prognostic value of low CD4+ T cell levels: Results of 6 years of follow-up. J. Acquired Immune Defic. Syndr. 1993;6:904–912. [PubMed: 7686224]
  130. Giorgi J.V., Ho H.-N., Hirji K., Chou C.-C., Hultin L.E., O'Rourke S., Park L., Margolick J.B., Ferbas J., Phair J.P. the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study Group. CD8+ lymphocyte activation at human immunodeficiency virus type 1 seroconversion: Development of HLA-DR+CD38CD8+ cells is associated with subsequent stable CD4+ cell levels. J. Infect. Dis. 1994;170:775–781. [PubMed: 7930717]
  131. Gougeon M.L., Olivier R., Garcia S., Guetard D., Dragic T., Dauguet C., Montagnier L. Evidence for an engagement process towards apoptosis in lymphocytes of HIV-infected patients. C.R. Acad. Sci. III. 1991;312:529–537. [PubMed: 1648991]
  132. Graziosi C., Pantaleo G., Gantt K.R., Demarest J.F., Cohen O.J., Fauci A.S. Lack of evidence for dichotomy of Th1 and Th2 predominance in HIV-infected individuals. Science. 1994;265:248–252. [PubMed: 8023143]
  133. Groux H., Torpier G., Montë D., Mouton Y., Capron A., Ameisen J.C. Activation-induced death by apoptosis in CD4+ T cells from human immunodeficiency virus-infected asymptomatic individuals. J. Exp. Med. 1992;175:331–340. [PMC free article: PMC2119133] [PubMed: 1346269]
  134. Haase A.T. Pathogenesis of lentivirus infections. Nature. 1986;322:130–136. [PubMed: 2425264]
  135. Hahn B.H., Shaw G.M., Taylor M.E., Redfield R.R., Markham P.D., Salahuddin S.Z., Wong-Staal F., Gallo R.C., Parks E.S., Parks W.P. Genetic variation in HTLV-III/LAV over time in patients with AIDS or at risk for AIDS. Science. 1986;232:1548–1553. [PubMed: 3012778]
  136. Halstead S.B. Antibody, macrophages, dengue virus infection, shock, and hemorrhage: A pathogenetic cascade. Rev. Infect. Dis. 1989;11 (suppl. 4):S830–839. [PubMed: 2665015]
  137. Harouse J.M., Bhat S., Spitalnik S.L., Laughlin M., Stefano K., Silberberg D.H., Gonzalez-Scarano F. Inhibition of entry of HIV-1 in neural cell lines by antibodies against galactosyl ceramide. Science. 1991;253:320–323. [PubMed: 1857969]
  138. Harrell R.A., Cianciolo G.J., Copeland T.D., Oroszlan S., Snyderman R. Suppression of the respiratory burst of human monocytes by a synthetic peptide homologous to envelope proteins of human and animal retroviruses. J. Immunol. 1986;136:3517–3520. [PubMed: 3701057]
  139. Haynes B.F. 1992Immune responses to HIV infection In AIDS: Etiology, diagnosis, treatment and prevention, 3rd edition (ed. V.T. DeVita, Jr. et al.), pp. 77–86. J.B. Lippincott, Philadelphia.
  140. Heise C., Vogel P., Miller C.J., Halsted C.H., Dandekar S. Simian immunodeficiency virus infection of the gastrointestinal tract of rhesus macaques. Functional, pathological, and morphological changes. Am. J. Pathol. 1993;142:1759–1771. [PMC free article: PMC1887002] [PubMed: 8506946]
  141. Hirsch V.M., Olmsted R.A., Murphey-Corb M., Purcell R.H., Johnson P.R. An African primate lentivirus (SIVsm) closely related to HIV-2. Nature. 1989;339:389–392. [PubMed: 2786147]
  142. Hirsch V.M., Dapolito G.A., Goldstein S., McClure H., Emau P., Fultz P.N., Isahakia M., Lenroot R., Myers G., Johnson P.R. A distinct African lentivirus from Sykes' monkeys. J. Virol. 1993;67:1517–1528. [PMC free article: PMC237522] [PubMed: 8382307]
  143. Ho D.D., Neumann A.U., Perelson A.S., Chen W., Leonard J.M., Markowitz M. Rapid turnover of plasma virions and CD4 lymphocytes in HIV infection. Nature. 1995;373:123–126. [PubMed: 7816094]
  144. Ho D.D., Sarngadharan M.G., Resnick L., diMarzo Veronese F., Rota T.R., Hirsch M.S. Primary human T-lymphotropic virus type III infection. Ann. Intern. Med. 1985;103:880–883. [PubMed: 2998251]
  145. Ho D.D., Fung M.S., Cao Y.Z., Li X.L., Sun C., Chang T.W., Sun N.C. Another discontinuous epitope on glycoprotein gp120 that is important in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 neutralization is identified by a monoclonal antibody. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1991;88:8949–8952. [PMC free article: PMC52628] [PubMed: 1717992]
  146. Holmberg S.D. 1997Risk factors for sexual transmission of human immunodeficiency virus In AIDS:Etiology, diagnosis, treatment and prevention (ed. V.T. deVita et al.), pp. 569–571. Lippincott-Raven, Philadelphia.
  147. Homsy J., Meyer M., Levy J.A. Serum enhancement of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection correlates with disease in HIV-infected individuals. J. Virol. 1990;64:1437–1440. [PMC free article: PMC249276] [PubMed: 2319642]
  148. Hoxie J.A., Alpers J.D., Rackowski J.L., Huebner K., Haggarty B.S., Cedarbaum A.J., Reed J.C. Alterations in T4 (CD4) protein and mRNA synthesis in cells infected with HIV. Science. 1986;234:1123–1127. [PubMed: 3095925]
  149. Huang Y.Q., Kaplan M.H., Poeisz B., Katabira E., Zhang W.C., Feiner D., Friedman-Kien A.E. Human herpesvirus-like nucleic acid in various forms of Kaposi's sarcoma. Lancet. 1995;345:759–761. [PubMed: 7891487]
  150. Huang Y., Paxton W.A., Wolinsky S.M., Neumann A.U., Zhang L., He T., Kang S., Ceradini D., Jin Z., Yazdanbaksh K., Kuntsman K., Erickson D., Landau N.R., Phair J., Ho D.D., Koup R.A. The role of a mutant CCR5 allele in HIV-1 transmission and disease progression. Nat. Med. 1996;2:1240–1243. [PubMed: 8898752]
  151. Huet T., Cheynier R., Meyerhans A., Roelants G., Wain-Hobson S. Genetic organization of a chimpanzee lentivirus related to HIV-1. Nature. 1990;345:356–359. [PubMed: 2188136]
  152. Hwang S.S., Boyle T.J., Lyerly H.K., Cullen B.R. Identification of the envelope V3 loop as the primary determinant of cell tropism in HIV-1. Science. 1991;253:71–74. [PubMed: 1905842]
  153. Imberti L., Sottini A., Bettinardi A., Puoti M., Primi D. Selective depletion in HIV infection of T cells that bear specific T cell receptor Vβ sequences. Science. 1991;254:860–862. [PubMed: 1948066]
  154. Jahan N., Razzaque A., Greenspan J., Conant M.A., Josephs S.F., Nakamura S., Rosenthal L.J. Analysis of human KS biopsies and cloned cell lines for cytomegalovirus, HIV-1, and other selected DNA virus sequences. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses. 1989;5:225–231. [PubMed: 2540783]
  155. Javaherian K., Langlois A.J., LaRosa G.J., Profy A.T., Bolognesi D.P., Herlihy W.C., Putney S.D., Matthews T.J. Broadly neutralizing antibodies elicited by the hypervariable neutralizing determinant of HIV-1. Science. 1990;250:1590–1593. [PubMed: 1703322]
  156. Javaherian K., Langlois A.J., Schmidt S., Kaufmann M., Cates N., Langedijk J.P., Meloen R.H., Desrosiers R.C., Burns D.P., Bolognesi D.P. The principal neutralization determinant of simian immunodeficiency virus differs from that of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1992;89:1418–1422. [PMC free article: PMC48462] [PubMed: 1371358]
  157. Javaherian K., Langlois A.J., McDanal C., Ross K.L., Eckler L.I., Jellis C.L., Profy A.T., Rusche J.R., Bolognesi D.P., Putney S.D., Matthews T.J. Principal neutralizing domain of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 envelope protein. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1989;86:6768–6772. [PMC free article: PMC297927] [PubMed: 2771954]
  158. Johnson B.K., Stone G.A., Godec M.S., Asher D.M., Gajdusek D.C., Gibbs C.J. Jr. Long-term observations of human immunodeficiency virus-infected chimpanzees. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses. 1993;9:375–378. [PubMed: 8352831]
  159. Joling P., van Wichen D.F., Parmentier H.K., Biberfeld P., Bottiger D., Tschopp J., Rademakers L.H., Schuurman H.J. Simian immunodeficiency virus (SIVsm) infection of cynomolgus monkeys: Effects on follicular dendritic cells in lymphoid tissue. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses. 1992;8:2021–2030. [PubMed: 1493052]
  160. Jones D.S., Byers R.H., Bush T.J., Oxtoby M.J., Rogers M.F. Epidemiology of transfusion-associated acquired immunodeficiency syndrome in children in the United States, 1981 through 1989. Pediatrics. 1992;89:123–127. [PubMed: 1727995]
  161. Jurriaans S., Van Gemen B., Weverling G.J., Van Strijp D., Nara P., Coutinho R., Koot M., Schuitemaker H., Goudsmit J. The natural history of HIV-1 infection: Virus load and virus phenotype independent determinants of clinical course? Virology. 1994;204:223–233. [PubMed: 7916514]
  162. Kaaya E., Li S.L., Feichtinger H., Stahmer I., Putkonen P., Mandache E., Mgaya E., Biberfeld G., Biberfeld P. Accessory cells and macrophages in the histopathology of SIVsm-infected cynomolgus monkeys. Res. Virol. 1993;144:81–92. [PubMed: 8446783]
  163. Katz J.D., Nishanian P., Mitsuyasu R., Bonavida B. Antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC)-mediated destruction of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-coated CD4+ T lymphocytes by acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) effector cells. J. Clin. Immunol. 1988;8:453–458. [PubMed: 2975670]
  164. Kaye B.R. Rheumatologic manifestations of infection with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Ann. Intern. Med. 1989;111:158–167. [PubMed: 2662849]
  165. Keshet E., Temin H.M. Cell killing by spleen necrosis virus is correlated with a transient accumulation of spleen necrosis virus DNA. J. Virol. 1979;31:376–388. [PMC free article: PMC353460] [PubMed: 225560]
  166. Kestler H.W. III, Ringler D.J., Mori K., Panicali D.L., Sehgal P.K., Daniel M.D., Desrosiers R.C. Importance of the nef gene for maintenance of high virus loads and for development of AIDS. Cell. 1991;65:651–662. [PubMed: 2032289]
  167. Kinloch-de Loes S., Hirschel B.J., Hoen B., Cooer D.A., Tindall B., Carr A., Saurat J.-H., Clumeck N., Lazzarin A., Mathiesen L., Raffi F., Antunes F., von Overbeck J., Luthy R., Glauser M., Hawkins D., Baumberger C., Yerly S., Perneger T.V., Perrin L. A controlled trial of zidovudine in primary human immunodeficiency virus infection. N. Engl. J. Med. 1995;333:408–413. [PubMed: 7616989]
  168. Kinter A.L., Poli G., Fox L., Hardy E., Fauci A.S. HIV replication in IL-2-stimulated peripheral blood mononuclear cells is driven in an autocrine/paracrine manner by endogenous cytokines. J. Immunol. 1995;154:2448–2459. [PubMed: 7868911]
  169. Kirchhoff F., Greenough T.C., Brettler D.B., Sullivan J.L., Desrosiers R.C. Brief report: Absence of intact nef sequences in a long-term survivor with nonprogressive HIV-1 infection. N. Engl. J. Med. 1995;332:228–232. [PubMed: 7808489]
  170. Klatzmann D., Champagne E., Chamaret S., Gruest J., Guetard D., Hercend T., Gluckman J.C., Montagnier L. T-lymphocyte T4 molecule behaves as the receptor for human retrovirus LAV. Nature. 1984;312:767–768. [PubMed: 6083454]
  171. Klenerman P., Phillips R.E., Rinaldo C.R., Wahl L.M., Ogg G., May R.M., McMichael A.J., Nowak M. Cytotoxic T lymphocytes and viral turnover in HIV type 1 infection. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1996;93:15323–15328. [PMC free article: PMC26403] [PubMed: 8986810]
  172. Kodama T., Mori K., Kawahara T., Ringler D.J., Desrosiers R.C. Analysis of simian immunodeficiency virus sequence variation in tissues of rhesus macaques with simian AIDS. J. Virol. 1993;67:6522–6534. [PMC free article: PMC238089] [PubMed: 8411355]
  173. Koenig S., Gendelman H.E., Orenstein J.M., Dal Canto M.C., Pezeshkpour G.H., Yungbluth M., Janotta F., Aksamit A., Martin M.A., Fauci A.S. Detection of AIDS virus in macrophages in brain tissue from AIDS patients with encephalopathy. Science. 1986;233:1089–1093. [PubMed: 3016903]
  174. Koga Y., Sasaki M., Yoshida H., Wigzell H., Kimura G., Nomoto K. Cytopathic effect determined by the amount of CD4 molecules in human cell lines expressing envelope glycoprotein of HIV. J. Immunol. 1990;144:94–102. [PubMed: 2404066]
  175. Kono Y., Kobayashi K., Fukunaga Y. Antigenic drift of equine infectious anemia virus in chronically infected horses. Arch. Gesamte Virusforsch. 1973;41:1–10. [PubMed: 4123810]
  176. Koszinowski U.H., Reddehase M.J., Keil G.M., Volkmer H., Jonjic S., Messerle M., del Val M., Mutter W., Munch K., Buhler B. Molecular analysis of herpesviral gene products recognized by protective cytolytic T lymphocytes. Immunol. Lett. 1987;16:185–192. [PubMed: 2832318]
  177. Koup R.A., Safrit J.T., Cao Y., Andrews C.A., McLeod G., Borkowsky W., Farthing C., Ho D.D. Temporal associations of cellular immune responses with the initial control of viremia in primary human immunodeficiency virus type 1 syndrome. J. Virol. 1994;68:4650–4655. [PMC free article: PMC236393] [PubMed: 8207839]
  178. Kurane I., Ennis F.E. Immunity and immunopathology in dengue virus infections. Semin. Immunol. 1992;4:121–127. [PubMed: 1617166]
  179. Lane G.P., Lucas C.R., Smallwood R.A. The gastrointestinal and hepatic manifestations of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Med. J. Aust. 1989;150:139–143. [PubMed: 2716583]
  180. Lane H.C. The generation of CD4 T lymphocytes in patients with HIV infection. J. Biol. Regul. Homeostatic Agents. 1995;9:107–109. [PubMed: 8782018]
  181. Lane H.C., Masur H., Edgar L.C., Whalen G., Rook A.H., Fauci A.S. Abnormalities of B-cell activation and immunoregulation in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N. Engl. J. Med. 1983;309:453–458. [PubMed: 6224088]
  182. Lane H.C., Masur H., Gelmann E.P., Longo D.L., Steis R.G., Chused T., Whalen G., Edgar L.C., Fauci A.S. Correlation between immunologic function and clinical subpopulations of patients with the acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Am. J. Med. 1985;78:417–422. [PubMed: 3872068]
  183. Lang W., Perkins H., Anderson R.E., Royce R., Jewell N., Winkelstein W. Jr. Patterns of T lymphocyte changes with human immunodeficiency virus infection: From seroconversion to the development of AIDS. J. Acquired Immune Defic. Syndr. 1989;2:63–69. [PubMed: 2783971]
  184. Larkin M., Childs R.A., Matthews T.J., Thiel S., Mizuochi T., Lawson A.M., Savill J.S., Haslett C., Diaz R., Feizi T. Oligosaccharide-mediated interactions of the envelope glycoprotein gp120 of HIV-1 that are independent of CD4 recognition. AIDS. 1989;3:793–798. [PubMed: 2561054]
  185. Lemp G.F., Payne S.F., Neal D., Temelso T., Rutherford G.W. Survival trends for patients with AIDS. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 1990a;263:402–406. [PubMed: 2294307]
  186. Lemp G.F., Hirozawa A.M., Cohen J.B., Derish P.A., McKinney K.C., Hernandez S.R. Survival for women and men with AIDS. J. Infect. Dis. 1992;166:74–79. [PubMed: 1607710]
  187. Lemp G.F., Payne S.F., Rutherford G.W., Hessol N.A., Winkelstein W. Jr., Wiley J.A., Moss A.R., Chaisson R.E., Chen R.T., Feigal D.W. Jr., Thomas P.A., Werdegar D. Projections of AIDS morbidity and mortality in San Francisco. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 1990b;263:1497–1501. [PubMed: 2407871]
  188. Letvin N.L., Daniel M.D., Sehgal P.K., Desrosiers R.C., Hunt R.D., Waldron L.M., MacKey J.J., Schmidt D.K., Chalifoux L.V., King N.W. Induction of AIDS-like disease in macaque monkeys with T-cell tropic retrovirus STLV-III. Science. 1985;230:71–73. [PubMed: 2412295]
  189. Levine A.M. AIDS-related malignancies: The emerging epidemic. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 1993;85:1382–1397. [PubMed: 8350362]
  190. Levy J.A. Pathogenesis of human immunodeficiency virus infection. Microbiol. Rev. 1993;57:183–289. [PMC free article: PMC372905] [PubMed: 8464405]
  191. Lifson A.R., Buchbinder S.P., Sheppard H.W., Mawle A.C., Wilber J.C., Stanley M., Hart C.E., Hessol N.A., Holmberg S.D. Long-term human immunodeficiency virus infection in asymptomatic homosexual and bisexual men with normal CD4+ lymphocyte counts: Immunologic and virologic characteristics. J. Infect. Dis. 1991;163:959–965. [PubMed: 1673465]
  192. Liu R., Paxton W.A., Choe S., Ceradini D., Martin S.R., Horuk R., MacDonald M.E., Stuhlmann H., Koup R.A., Landau N.R. Homozygous defect in HIV-1 coreceptor accounts for resistance of some multiply-exposed individuals to HIV-1 infection. Cell. 1996;86:367–378. [PubMed: 8756719]
  193. Liu Z.Q., Wood C., Levy J.A., Cheng-Mayer C. The viral envelope gene is involved in macrophage tropism of a human immunodeficiency virus type 1 strain isolated from brain tissue. J. Virol. 1990;64:6148–6153. [PMC free article: PMC248789] [PubMed: 2243391]
  194. Louwagie J., Janssens W., Mascola J., Heyndrickx L., Hegerich P., vander Groen G., McCutchan F.E., Burke D.S. Genetic diversity of the envelope glycoprotein from human immunodeficiency virus type I isolates of African origin. J. Virol. 1995;69:263–271. [PMC free article: PMC188572] [PubMed: 7983718]
  195. Luo T., Garcia J.V. The association of nef with a cellular serine/threonine kinase and its enhancement of infectivity are viral isolate dependent. J. Virol. 1996;70:6493–6496. [PMC free article: PMC190686] [PubMed: 8709288]
  196. Lusso P., Gallo R.C. Human herpesvirus 6 in AIDS. Immunol. Today. 1995;16:67–71. [PubMed: 7888069]
  197. Lyerly H.K., Matthews T.J., Langlois A.J., Bolognesi D.P., Weinhold K.J. Human T-cell lymphotropic virus IIIB glycoprotein (gp120) bound to CD4 determinants on normal lymphocytes and expressed by infected cells serves as target for immune attack. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1987;84:4601–4605. [PMC free article: PMC305138] [PubMed: 3037522]
  198. Mackewicz C., Levy J.A. CD8+ cell anti-HIV activity: Nonlytic suppression of virus replication. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses. 1992;8:1039–1050. [PubMed: 1354466]
  199. Mackewicz C.E., Barker E., Levy J.A. Role of β-chemokines in suppressing HIV replication. Science. 1996;274:1393–1394. [PubMed: 8966605]
  200. MacMahon E.M., Glass J.D., Hayward S.D., Mann R.B., Becker P.S., Charache P., McArthur J.C., Ambinder R.F. Epstein-Barr virus in AIDS-related primary central nervous system lymphoma. Lancet. 1991;338:969–973. [PubMed: 1681341]
  201. Maddon P.J., Dalgleish A.G., McDougal J.S., Clapham P.R., Weiss R.A., Axel R. The T4 gene encodes the AIDS virus receptor and is expressed in the immune system and the brain. Cell. 1986;47:333–348. [PubMed: 3094962]
  202. Maggi E., Mazzetti M., Ravina A., Annunziato F., De Carli M., Piccinni M.P., Manetti R., Carbonari M., Pesce A.M., De Prete G., Romagnani S. Ability of HIV to promote a Th1 to Th0 shift and to replicate preferentially in Th2 and Th0 cells. Science. 1994;265:244–248. [PubMed: 8023142]
  203. Manca F. Galactose receptors and presentation of HIV envelope glycoprotein to specific human T cells. J. Immunol. 1992;148:2278–2282. [PubMed: 1312106]
  204. Mansour I., Doinel C., Rouger P. CD16+ NK cells decrease in all stages of HIV infection through a selective depletion of the CD16+ CD8+ CD3 subset. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses. 1990;6:1451–1457. [PubMed: 2150319]
  205. Mariani R., Skowronski J. CD4 downregulation by nef alleles isolated from human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected individuals. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1993;90:5549–5553. [PMC free article: PMC46758] [PubMed: 8516299]
  206. Markovitz D.M. Infection with the human immunodeficiency virus type 2. Ann. Intern. Med. 1993;118:211–218. [PubMed: 8380244]
  207. Marx P.A., Li Y., Lerche N.W., Sutjipto S., Gettie A., Yee J.A., Brotman B.H., Prince A.M., Hanson A., Webster R.G., Desrosiers R.C. Isolation of a simian immunodeficiency virus related to human immunodeficiency virus type 2 from a west African pet sooty mangabey. J. Virol. 1991;65:4480–4485. [PMC free article: PMC248889] [PubMed: 1840620]
  208. McCutchan F.E., Hegerich P.A., Brennan T.P., Phanuphak P., Singharaj P., Jugsudee A., Berman P.W., Gray A.M., Fowler A.K., Burke D.S. Genetic variants of HIV-1 in Thailand. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses. 1992;8:1887–1895. [PubMed: 1489577]
  209. McDougal J.S., Mawle A., Cort S.P., Nicholson J.K.A., Cross G.D., Scheppler-Campbell J.A., Hicks D., Sligh J. Cellular tropism of the human retrovirus HTLV-III/LAV. I. Role of T cell activation and expression of the T4 antigen. J. Immunol. 1985;135:3151–3162. [PubMed: 2995487]
  210. McFadden G., Graham K. Modulation of cytokine networks by poxvirus: The myxoma virus model. Semin. Virol. 1994;5:421–429.
  211. McKeating J.A., Griffiths P.D., Weiss R.A. HIV susceptibility conferred to human fibroblasts by cytomegalovirus-induced Fc receptor. Nature. 1990;343:659–661. [PubMed: 2154697]
  212. McNearney T., Hornickova Z., Markham R., Birdwell A., Arens M., Saah A., Ratner L. Relationship of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 sequence heterogeneity to stage of disease. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1992;89:10247–10251. [PMC free article: PMC50315] [PubMed: 1438212]
  213. Mellors J.W., Rinaldo C.R.J., Gupta P., White R.M., Todd J.A., Kingsley L.A. Prognosis in HIV-1 infection predicted by the quantity of virus in plasma. Science. 1996;272:1167–1170. [PubMed: 8638160]
  214. Mellors J.W., Munoz A., Giorgi J.V., Margolick J.B., Tassoni C.J., Gupta P., Kingsley L.A., Todd J.A., Saah A.J., Detels R., Phair J.P., Rinaldo C.R. Jr. Plasma viral load and CD4+ lymphocytes as prognostic markers of HIV-1 infection. Ann. Intern. Med. 1997;126:946–954. [PubMed: 9182471]
  215. Meltzer M.S., Skillman D.R., Hoover D.L., Hanson B.D., Turpin J.A., Kalter D.C., Gendelman H.E. Macrophages and the human immunodeficiency virus. Immunol. Today. 1990;11:217–223. [PubMed: 2191685]
  216. Meyaard L., Schuitemaker H., Miedema F. T-cell dysfunction in HIV infection: Anergy due to defective antigen-presenting cell function? Immunol. Today. 1993;14:161–164. [PubMed: 8098942]
  217. Meyaard L., Otto S.A., Keet I.P., Roos M.T., Miedema F. Programmed death of T cells in human immunodeficiency virus infection. No correlation with progression to disease. J Clin. Invest. 1994;93:982–988. [PMC free article: PMC294014] [PubMed: 8132784]
  218. Meyaard L., Otto S.A., Jonker R.R., Mijnster M.J., Keet R.P.M., Miedema F. Programmed death of T cells in HIV-1 infection. Science. 1992;257:217–219. [PubMed: 1352911]
  219. Miles S.A., Martinez-Maza O., Rezai A., Magpantay L., Kishimoto T., Nakamura S., Radka S.F., Linsley P.S. Oncostatin M as a potent mitogen for AIDS-Kaposi's sarcoma-derived cells. Science. 1992;255:1432–1434. [PubMed: 1542793]
  220. Mittler R.S., Hoffmann M.K. Synergism between HIV gp120 and gp120-specific antibody in blocking T cell activation. Science. 1989;245:1380–1382. [PubMed: 2571187]
  221. Montefiori D.C., Murphey-Corb M., Desrosiers R.C., Daniel M.D. Complement-mediated, infection-enhancing antibodies in plasma from vaccinated macaques before and after inoculation with live simian immunodeficiency virus. J. Virol. 1990;64:5223–5225. [PMC free article: PMC248023] [PubMed: 2168999]
  222. Moore J.P., Ho D.D. Antibodies to discontinuous or conformationally sensitive epitopes on the gp120 glycoprotein of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 are highly prevalent in sera of infected humans. J. Virol. 1993;67:863–875. [PMC free article: PMC237440] [PubMed: 7678308]
  223. Moore J.P., Ho D.D. HIV-1 neutralization: The consequences of viral adaptation to growth on transformed T cells. AIDS. 1995;9 (suppl. A):S117–S136. [PubMed: 8819579]
  224. Moore J.P., Trkola A., Dragic T. Coreceptors for HIV-1 entry. Curr. Opin. Immunol. (in press). 1997 [PubMed: 9287172]
  225. Moore J.P., Sattentau Q.J., Wyatt R., Sodroski J. Probing the structure of the human immunodeficiency virus surface glycoprotien gp120 with a panel of monoclonal antibodies. J. Virol. 1994;68:469–484. [PMC free article: PMC236308] [PubMed: 7504741]
  226. Moore J.P., Cao Y., Qing L., Sattentau Q.J., Pyati J., Koduri R., Robinson J., Barbas C.F.I., Burton D.R., Ho D.D. Primary isolates of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 are relatively resistant to neutralization by monoclonal antibodies to gp120 and their neutralization is not predicted by studies with monomeric gp120. J. Virol. 1995;69:101–109. [PMC free article: PMC188553] [PubMed: 7527081]
  227. Moore P.S., Chang Y. Detection of herpesvirus-like DNA sequences in Kaposi's sarcoma in patients with and those without HIV infection. N. Engl. J. Med. 1995;332:1181–1195. [PubMed: 7700310]
  228. Mori K., Ringler D.J., Desrosiers R.C. Restricted replication of simian immunodeficiency virus strain 239 in macrophages is determined by env but is not due to restricted entry. J. Virol. 1993;67:2807–2814. [PMC free article: PMC237605] [PubMed: 7682627]
  229. Mori K., Ringler D.J., Kodama T., Desrosiers R.C. Complex determinants of macrophage tropism in env of simian immunodeficiency virus. J. Virol. 1992;66:2067–2075. [PMC free article: PMC288997] [PubMed: 1548752]
  230. Moss A.R., Bacchetti P. Natural history of HIV infection. AIDS. 1989;3:55–61. [PubMed: 2496720]
  231. Mossman T.R., Cherwinski H., Bond M.W., Giedlin M.A., Coffman R.L. Two types of murine helper T-cell clones-I. Definition according to profiles of lymphokine activities and secreted proteins. J. Immunol. 1986;136:2348–2357. [PubMed: 2419430]
  232. Moutouh L., Corbeil J., Richman D.D. Recombination leads to the rapid emergence of HIV-1 dually resistant mutants under selective drug pressure. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1996;93:6106–6111. [PMC free article: PMC39197] [PubMed: 8650227]
  233. Müller J.G., Krenn V., Schindler C., Czub S., Stahl-Hennig C., Coulibaly C., Hunsmann G., Kneitz C., Kerkau T., Rethwilm A. Alterations of thymus cortical epithelium and interdigitating dendritic cells but no increase of thymocyte cell death in the early course of simian immunodeficiency virus infection. Am. J Pathol. 1993;143:699–713. [PMC free article: PMC1887226] [PubMed: 8362972]
  234. Müller M.C., Saksena N.K., Nerrienet E., Chappey C., Hervé V.M., Durand J.-P., Legal-Campodonico P., Lang M.-C., Digoutte J.-P., Georges A.J., Georges-Courbot M.-C., Sonigo P., Barré-Sinoussi F. Simian immunodeficiency viruses from central and western Africa: Evidence for a new species-specific lentivirus in tantalus monkeys. J. Virol. 1993;67:1227–1235. [PMC free article: PMC237488] [PubMed: 8437214]
  235. Muller S., Richalet P., Laurent-Crawford A., Barakat S., Rivière Y., Porrot F., Chamaret S., Briand J.P., Montagnier L., Hovanessian A. Autoantibodies typical of non-organ-specific autoimmune diseases in HIV-seropositive patients. AIDS. 1992;6:933–942. [PubMed: 1388904]
  236. Muro-Cacho C.A., Pantaleo G., Fauci A.S. Analysis of apoptosis in lymph nodes of HIV-infected persons: Intensity of apoptosis correlates with the general state of activation of the lymphoid tissue and not with the stage of disease or viral burden. J. Immunol. 1995;154:5555–5566. [PubMed: 7730654]
  237. Murphy P.M. Chemokine receptors: Structure, function and role in microbial pathogenesis. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. 1996;7:47–64. [PubMed: 8864354]
  238. Myers G., Korber B., Wain-Hobson S., Jeang K.-T., Henderson L.E., Pavlakis G.N. Human retroviruses and AIDS 1994. Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico. 1994.
  239. Myers G., Korber B., Hahn B.H., Jeang K.-T., Mellors J.W., McCutchen F.E., Henderson L.E., Pavlakis G.N. Human retroviruses and AIDS 1995. Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico. 1995. [PMC free article: PMC41633]
  240. Nabel G., Baltimore D. An inducible transcription factor activates expression of human immunodeficiency virus in T cells. Nature. 1987;326:711–712. [PubMed: 3031512]
  241. Nair B.C., DeVico A.L., Nakamura S., Copeland T.D., Chen Y., Patel A., O'Neil T., Oroszlan S., Gallo R.C., Sarngadharan M.G. Identification of a major growth factor for AIDS-Kaposi's sarcoma cells as oncostatin M. Science. 1992;255:1430–1432. [PubMed: 1542792]
  242. Nakamura S., Salahuddin S.Z., Biberfeld P., Ensoli B., Markham P.D., Wong-Staal F., Gallo R.C. Kaposi's sarcoma cells: Long-term culture with growth factor from retrovirus-infected CD4+ T cells. Science. 1988;242:426–430. [PubMed: 3262925]
  243. Narayan O., Cork L.C. Lentiviral diseases of sheep and goats: Chronic pneumonia leukoencephalomyelitis and arthritis. Rev. Infect. Dis. 1985;7:89–98. [PubMed: 3885367]
  244. Narayan O., Kennedy-Stoskopf S., Zink M.C. Lentivirus-host interactions: Lessons from visna and caprine arthritis-encephalitis viruses. Ann. Neurol. 1988;23 (suppl):S95–100. [PubMed: 2831808]
  245. Nathanson N., McGann K.A., Wilesmith J., Desrosiers R.C., Brookmeyer R. The evolution of virus diseases: their emergence, epidemicity, and control. Virus Res. 1993;29:3–20. [PubMed: 8212850]
  246. Newell M.K., Haughn L.J., Maroun C.R., Julius M.H. Death of mature T cells by separate ligation of CD4 and TCR for antigen. Nature. 1990;347:286–289. [PubMed: 2144894]
  247. Nixon D.F., Broliden K., Ogg G., Broliden P.A. Cellular and humoral antigenic epitopes in HIV and SIV. Immunology. 1992;76:515–534. [PMC free article: PMC1421556] [PubMed: 1383131]
  248. Novembre F.J., Saucier M., Anderson D.C., Klumpp S.A., O'Neil S.P., Brown 2nd C.R., Hart C.E., Guenthner P.C., Swenson R.B., McClure H.M. Development of AIDS in a chimpanzee infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J. Virol. 1997;71:4086–4091. [PMC free article: PMC191562] [PubMed: 9094687]
  249. Nowak M., Bonhoeffer S., Shaw G.M., May R.M. Antiviral drug treatment: Dynamics of resistance in free virus and infected cell populations. J. Theor. Biol. 1997;184:203–217. [PubMed: 9059598]
  250. Nowak M.A., May R.M., Phillips R.E., Rowland-Jones S., Lalloo D., McAdam S., Klenerman P., Köppe B., Sigmund K., Bangham C.M., McMichael A.J. Antigenic oscillation and shifting immunodominance in HIV-1 infections. Nature. 1995;375:606–611. [PubMed: 7791879]
  251. Oberlin E., Amara A., Bachelerie F., Bessia C., Virelizier J.L., Arenzana-Seisdedos F., Schwartz O., Heard J.M., Clark-Lewis I., Legler D.F., Loetscher M., Baggiolini M., Moser B. The CXC chemokine SDF-1 is the ligand for LESTR/fusin and prevents infection by T-cell-line-adapted HIV-1. Nature. 1996;382:833–835. [PubMed: 8752281]
  252. O'Brien W.A., Koyanagi Y., Namazie A., Zhao J.Q., Diagne A., Idler K., Zack J.A., Chen I.S. HIV-1 tropism for mononuclear phagocytes can be determined by regions of gp120 outside the CD4-binding domain. Nature. 1990;348:69–73. [PubMed: 2172833]
  253. Oldstone M.B., Blount P., Southern P.J., Lampert P.W. Cytoimmunotherapy for persistent virus infection reveals a unique clearance pattern from the central nervous system. Nature. 1986;321:239–243. [PubMed: 3086743]
  254. Orenstein J.M., Meltzer M.S., Phipps T., Gendelman H.E. Cytoplasmic assembly and accumulation of human immunodeficiency virus types 1 and 2 in recombinant human colony-stimulating factor-1-treated human monocytes: An ultrastructural study. J. Virol. 1988;62:2578–2586. [PMC free article: PMC253687] [PubMed: 3260631]
  255. Oukka M., Manuguerra J.C., Livaditis N., Tourdot S., Riche N., Vergnon I., Cordopatis P., Kosmatopoulos K. Protection against lethal viral infection by vaccination with nonimmunodominant peptides. J. Immunol. 1996;157:3039–3045. [PubMed: 8816413]
  256. Pahwa S., Pahwa R., Good R.A., Gallo R.C., Saxinger C. Stimulatory and inhibitory influences of human immunodeficiency virus on normal B lymphocytes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1986;83:9124–9128. [PMC free article: PMC387087] [PubMed: 3024167]
  257. Pang S., Shlesinger Y., Daar E.S., Moudgil T., Ho D.D., Chen I.S. Rapid generation of sequence variation during primary HIV-1 infection. AIDS. 1992;6:453–460. [PubMed: 1616650]
  258. Pantaleo G., Fauci A.S. Apoptosis in HIV infection. Nat. Med. 1995;1:118–120. [PubMed: 7585004]
  259. Pantaleo G., Graziosi C., Fauci A.S. New concepts in the immunopathogenesis of human immunodeficiency virus infection. N. Engl. J. Med. 1993a;328:327–335. [PubMed: 8093551]
  260. Pantaleo G., Graziosi C., Fauci A.S. The role of lymphoid organs in the immunopathogenesis of HIV infection. AIDS. 1993b;7 (suppl. 1):S19–S23. [PubMed: 8363784]
  261. Pantaleo G., Koenig S., Baseler M., Lane H.C., Fauci A.S. Defective clonogenic potential of CD8+ T lymphocytes in patients with AIDS. Expansion in vivo of a nonclonogenic CD3+CD8+DR+CD25 T cell population. J. Immunol. 1990;144:1696–1704. [PubMed: 2137842]
  262. Pantaleo G., Graziosi C., Butini L., Pizzo P.A., Schnittman S.M., Kotler D.P., Fauci A.S. Lymphoid organs function as major reservoirs for human immunodeficiency virus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1991;88:9838–9842. [PMC free article: PMC52816] [PubMed: 1682922]
  263. Pantaleo G., Graziosi C., Demarest J.F., Butini L., Montroni M., Fox C.H., Orenstein J.M., Kotler D.P., Fauci A.S. HIV infection is active and progressive in lymphoid tissue during the clinically latent stage of disease. Nature. 1993c;362:355–358. [PubMed: 8455722]
  264. Pantaleo G., Demarest J.F., Soudeyns H., Graziosi C., Denis F., Adelsberger J.W., Borrow P., Saag M.S., Shaw G.M., Sékaly R.P., Fauci A.S. Major expansion of CD8+ T cells with a predominant Vß usage during the primary immune response to HIV. Nature. 1994;370:463–467. [PubMed: 8047166]
  265. Pantaleo G., Menzo S., Vaccareza M., Graziosi C., Cohen O.J., Demarest J.F., Montefiori D., Orenstein J.M., Fox C., Schrager L.K., Margolick J.B., Buchbinder S., Giorgi J.V., Fauci A.S. Studies in subjects with long-term nonprogressive human immunodeficiency virus infection. N. Engl. J. Med. 1995;332:209–216. [PubMed: 7808486]
  266. Patterson B.K., Till M., Otto P., Goolsby C., Furtado M.R., McBride L.J., Wolinsky S.M. Detection of HIV-1 DNA and messenger RNA in individual cells by PCR-driven in situ hybridization and flow cytometry. Science. 1993;260:976–979. [PubMed: 8493534]
  267. Paxton W., Martin S., Tse D., O'Brien T., Skurnik T., Van Devanter N., Padian N., Braun J., Kotler D., Wolinsky S., Koup R. Relative resistance to HIV-1 infection of CD4 lymphocytes from persons who remain uninfected despite multiple high-risk exposures. Nat. Med. 1996;2:412–417. [PubMed: 8597950]
  268. Pepin J., Morgan G., Dunn D., Gevao S., Mendy M., Gaye I., Scollen N., Tedder R., Whittle H. HIV-2-induced immunosuppression among asymptomatic west African prostitutes: Evidence that HIV-2 is pathogenic, but less so than HIV-1. AIDS. 1991;5:1165–1172. [PubMed: 1786143]
  269. Perelson A.S., Neumann A.U., Markowitz M., Leonard J.M., Ho D.D. HIV-1 dynamics in vivo: Virion clearance rate, infected cell lifespan, and viral generation time. Science. 1996;271:1582–1586. [PubMed: 8599114]
  270. Perelson A.S., Essunger P., Cao Y., Vesanen M., Hurley A., Saksela K., Markowitz M., Ho D.D. Decay characteristics of HIV-1-infected compartments during combination therapy (comments). Nature. 1997;387:188–191. [PubMed: 9144290]
  271. Peterman T.A., Jaffe H.W., Beral V. Epidemiologic clues to the etiology of Kaposi's sarcoma. AIDS. 1993;7:605–611. [PubMed: 8318169]
  272. Phillips A.N. Reduction of HIV concentration during acute infection: Independence from a specific immune response. J. Virol. 1996;70:497–499. [PubMed: 8560262]
  273. Phillips R.E., Rowland-Jones S., Nixon D.F., Gotch F.M., Edwards J.P., Ogunlesi A.O., Elvin J.G., Rothbard J.A., Bangham C.R., Rizza C.R. Human immunodeficiency virus genetic variation that can escape cytotoxic T cell recognition. Nature. 1991;354:453–459. [PubMed: 1721107]
  274. Piatak M. Jr., Saag M.S., Yang L.C., Clark S.J., Kappes J.C., Luk K.C., Hahn B.H., Shaw G.M., Lifson J.D. High levels of HIV-1 in plasma during all stages of infection determined by competitive PCR. Science. 1993;259:1749–1754. [PubMed: 8096089]
  275. Pizzo P.A., Eddy J., Falloon J., Balis F.M., Murphy R.F., Moss H., Wolters P., Brouwers P., Jarosinski P., Rubin M., Broder S., Yarchoan R., Brunetti A., Maha M., Nusinoff-Lehrman S., Poplack D.G. Effect of continuous intravenous infusion of zidovudine (AZT) in children with symptomatic HIV infection. N. Engl. J. Med. 1988;319:889–896. [PubMed: 3166511]
  276. Poli G., Fauci A.S. The effect of cytokines and pharmacologic agents on chronic HIV infection. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses. 1992;8:191–197. [PubMed: 1540407]
  277. Poli G., Fauci A.S. Cytokine modulation of HIV expression. Semin. Immunol. 1993;5:165–173. [PubMed: 7688596]
  278. Poli G., Fauci A.S. 1995Role of cytokines in the pathogenesis of human immunodeficiency virus infection. In Human cytokines: Their role in disease and therapy (ed. B.B. Aggarwal and R.K. Puri), pp. 421–449. Blackwell Scientific, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
  279. Poli G., Kinter A., Justement J.S., Kehrl J.H., Bressler P., Stanley S., Fauci A.S. Tumor necrosis factor α functions in an autocrine manner in the induction of human immunodeficiency virus expression. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1990;87:782–785. [PMC free article: PMC53350] [PubMed: 2300561]
  280. Popovic M., Sarngadharan M.G., Read E., Gallo R.C. Detection, isolation, and continuous production of cytopathic retroviruses (HTLV-III) from patients with AIDS and pre-AIDS. Science. 1984;224:497–500. [PubMed: 6200935]
  281. Price R.W., Brew B.J. The AIDS dementia complex. J. Infect. Dis. 1988;158:1079–1083. [PubMed: 3053922]
  282. Price R.W., Brew B., Sidtis J., Rosenblum M., Scheck A.C., Cleary P. The brain in AIDS: Central nervous system HIV-1 infection and AIDS dementia complex. Science. 1988;239:586–592. [PubMed: 3277272]
  283. Prince A.M., Reesink H., Pascual D., Horowitz B., Hewlett I., Murthy K.K., Cobb K.E., Eichberg J.W. Prevention of HIV infection by passive immunization with HIV immunoglobulin. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses. 1991;7:971–993. [PubMed: 1812946]
  284. Psallidopoulos M.C., Schnittman S.M., Thompson III L.M., Baseler M., Fauci A.S., Lane H.C., Salzman N.P. Integrated proviral human immunodeficiency virus type 1 is present in CD4+ peripheral blood lymphocytes in healthy seropositive individuals. J. Virol. 1989;63:4626–4631. [PMC free article: PMC251096] [PubMed: 2795714]
  285. Putkonen P., Kaaya E.E., Bottiger D., Li S.L., Nilsson C., Biberfeld P., Biberfeld G. Clinical features and predictive markers of disease progression in cynomolgus monkeys experimentally infected with simian immunodeficiency virus. AIDS. 1992;6:257–263. [PubMed: 1348944]
  286. Quinn T.C. Global burden of the HIV pandemic (comments) (published erratum appears in Lancet [1996] 348 276). Lancet. 1996;348:99–106. [PubMed: 8676726]
  287. Radka S.F., Nakamura S., Sakurada S., Salahuddin S.Z. Correlation of oncostatin M secretion by human retrovirus-infected cells with potent growth stimulation of cultured spindle cells from AIDS-Kaposi's sarcoma. J. Immunol. 1993;150:5195–5201. [PubMed: 8098726]
  288. Reddy M.M., Goetz R.R., Gorman J.M., Grieco M.H., Chess L., Lederman S. Human immunodeficiency virus type-1 infection of homosexual men is accompanied by a decrease in circulating B cells. J. Acquired Immune Defic. Syndr. 1991;4:428–434. [PubMed: 1706770]
  289. Renne R., Lagunoff M., Zhong W., Ganem D. The size and conformation of Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (human herpesvirus 8) DNA in infected cells and virions. J. Virol. 1996a;70:8151–8154. [PMC free article: PMC190893] [PubMed: 8892944]
  290. Renne R., Zhong W., Herndier B., McGrath M., Abbey N., Kedes D., Ganem D. Lytic growth of Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (human herpesvirus 8) in culture. Nature Med. 1996b;2:342–346. [PubMed: 8612236]
  291. Rieckmann P., Poli G., Kehrl J.H., Fauci A.S. Activated B lymphocytes from human immunodeficiency virus-infected individuals induce virus expression in infected T cells and a promonocytic cell line, U1. J. Exp. Med. 1991a;173:1–5. [PMC free article: PMC2118767] [PubMed: 1985116]
  292. Rieckmann P., D'Alessandro F., Nordan R.P., Fauci A.S., Kehrl J.H. IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor-α. Autocrine and paracrine cytokines involved in B cell function. J. Immunol. 1991b;146:3462–3468. [PubMed: 2026875]
  293. Rieckmann P., Poli G., Fox C.H., Kehrl J.H., Fauci A.S. Recombinant gp120 specifically enhances tumor necrosis factor-α production and Ig secretion in B lymphocytes from HIV-infected individuals but not from seronegative donors. J. Immunol. 1991c;147:2922–2927. [PubMed: 1918999]
  294. Ringler D.J., Wyand M.S., Walsh D.G., MacKey J.J., Chalifoux L.V., Popovic M., Minassian A.A., Sehgal P.K., Daniel M.D., Desrosiers R.C., King N.W. Cellular localization of simian immunodeficiency virus in lymphoid tissues. I. Immunohistochemistry and electron microscopy. Am. J. Pathol. 1989;134:373–383. [PMC free article: PMC1879599] [PubMed: 2537016]
  295. Robertson D.L., Sharp P.M., McCutchan F.E., Hahn B.H. Recombination in HIV-1. Nature. 1995;374:124–126. [PubMed: 7877682]
  296. Romagnani S. Human Th1 and Th2 subsets: Doubt no more. Immunol. Today. 1991;12:256–257. [PubMed: 1680337]
  297. Rosenberg Z.F., Fauci A.S. The immunopathogenesis of HIV infection. Adv. Immunol. 1989a;47:377–431. [PubMed: 2573256]
  298. Rosenberg Z.F., Fauci A.S. Induction of expression of HIV in latently or chronically infected cells. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses. 1989b;5:1–4. [PubMed: 2566319]
  299. Rosenberg Z.F., Fauci A.S. 1992Immunopathogenesis of HIV infectionIn AIDS: Etiology, diagnosis, treatment and prevention, 3rd edition (ed. V.T. DeVita, Jr. et al), pp. 61–76. J.B. Lippincott, Philadelphia. [PMC free article: PMC48727]
  300. Roth W.K., Brandstetter H., Sturzl M. Cellular and molecular features of HIV-associated Kaposi's sarcoma. AIDS. 1992;6:895–913. [PubMed: 1388902]
  301. Rouzioux C., Costagliola D., Burgard M., Blanche S., Mayaux M.J., Griscelli C., Valleron A.J. Timing of mother-to-child HIV-1 transmission depends on maternal status. The HIV Infection in Newborns French Collaborative Study Group. AIDS. 1993;7 (suppl. 2):S49–52. [PubMed: 8161446]
  302. Russo J.J., Bohenzky R.A., Chien M.-C., Chen J., Yan M., Maddalena D., Parry J.P., Peruzzi D., Edelman I.S., Chang Y., Moore P.S. Nucleotide sequence of the Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (HHV8). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1996;93:14862–14867. [PMC free article: PMC26227] [PubMed: 8962146]
  303. Rutherford G.W., Lifson A.R., Hessol N.A., Darrow W.W., O'Malley P.M., Buchbinder S.P., Barnhart J.L., Bodecker T.W., Cannon L., Doll L.S., Holmberg S.D., Harrison J.S., Rogers M.F., Werdegar D., Jaffe H.W. Course of HIV-I infection in a cohort of homosexual and bisexual men: An 11 year follow up study. Br. Med. J. 1990;301:1183–1188. [PMC free article: PMC1664363] [PubMed: 2261554]
  304. Saag M.S., Hahn B.H., Gibbons J., Li Y.X., Parks E.S., Parks W.P., Shaw G.M. Extensive variation of human immunodeficiency virus type-1 in vivo. Nature. 1988;334:440–444. [PubMed: 3405290]
  305. Safai B., Johnson K.G., Myskowski P.L., Koziner B., Yang S.Y., Cunningham-Rundles S., Godbold J.H., Dupont B. The natural history of Kaposi's sarcoma in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Ann. Intern. Med. 1985;103:744–750. [PubMed: 3901851]
  306. Safrit J.T., Andrews C.A., Zhu T., Ho D.D., Koup R.A. Characterization of human immunodeficiency virus type 1-specific cytotoxic T lymphocyte clones isolated during acute seroconversion: Recognition of autologous virus sequences within a conserved immunodominant epitope. J. Exp. Med. 1994;179:463–472. [PMC free article: PMC2191356] [PubMed: 8294860]
  307. Sakai H., Sakuragi S., Sakuragi J., Kawamura M., Shibata R., Adachi A. Sequences responsible for efficient replication of simian immunodeficiency virus SIVMND in cells of the monocyte/macrophage lineage. J. Gen. Virol. 1992;73:2989–2993. [PubMed: 1431813]
  308. Samson M., Libert F., Doranz B.J., Rucker J., Liesnard C., Farber C.-M., Saragosti S., Lapoumeroulie C., Cognaux J., Forceille C., Muyldermans G., Verhofstede C., Burtonboy G., Georges M., Imai T., Rana S., Yi Y., Smyth R.J., Collman R.G., Doms R.W., Vassart G., Parmentier M. Resistance to HIV-1 infection in caucasian individuals bearing mutant alleles of the CCR-5 chemokine receptor gene. Nature. 1996;382:722–725. [PubMed: 8751444]
  309. Sattentau Q.J., Moore J.P. Conformational changes induced in the human immunodeficiency virus envelope glycoprotein by soluble CD4 binding. J. Exp. Med. 1991;174:407–415. [PMC free article: PMC2118908] [PubMed: 1713252]
  310. Scarlatti G. Paediatric HIV infection (comments). Lancet. 1996;348:863–868. [PubMed: 8826814]
  311. Schnittman S.M., Lane H.C., Greenhouse J., Justement J.S., Baseler M., Fauci A.S. Preferential infection of CD4+ memory T cells by human immunodeficiency virus type 1: Evidence for a role in the selective T-cell functional defects observed in infected individuals. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1990a;87:6058–6062. [PMC free article: PMC54471] [PubMed: 2385584]
  312. Schnittman S.M., Denning S.M., Greenhouse J.J., Justement J.S., Baseler M., Kurtzberg J., Haynes B.F., Fauci A.S. Evidence for susceptibility of intrathymic T-cell precursors and their progeny carrying T-cell antigen receptor phenotypes TCR αβ+ and TCR γδ+ to human immunodeficiency virus infection: A mechanism for CD4+ (T4) lymphocyte depletion. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1990b;87:7727–7731. [PMC free article: PMC54821] [PubMed: 2217206]
  313. Schnittman S.M., Psallidopoulos M.C., Lane H.C., Thompson L., Baseler M., Massari F., Fox C.H., Salzman N.P., Fauci A.S. The reservoir for HIV-1 in human peripheral blood is a T cell that maintains expression of CD4. Science. 1989;245:305–308. [PubMed: 2665081]
  314. Seage G.R., Oddleifson S., Carr E., Shea B., Makarewicz-Robert L., van Beuzekom M., De Maria A. Survival with AIDS in Massachusetts, 1979 to 1989. Am. J. Public Health. 1993;83:72–78. [PMC free article: PMC1694515] [PubMed: 8417611]
  315. Seemayer T.A., Laroche A.C., Russo P., Malebranche R., Amoux E., Guerin J.M., Pierre G., Dupuy J.M., Gartner J.G., Lapp W.S., Spira T.J., Elie R. Precocious thymic involution manifest by epithelial injury in the acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Hum. Pathol. 1984;15:469–474. [PubMed: 6609873]
  316. Shafferman A., Lewis M.G., McCutchan F.E., Benveniste R.E., Jahrling P.B., Burke D.S., Eddy G.A. Prevention of transmission of simian immunodeficiency virus from vaccinated macaques that developed transient virus infection following challenge. Vaccine. 1993;11:848–852. [PubMed: 8356845]
  317. Shafferman A., Lewis M.G., McCutchan F.E., Benveniste R.E., Jahrling P.B., Hickman R.L., Lai C.Y., Burke D.S., Eddy G.A. Vaccination of macaques with SIV conserved envelope peptides suppressed infection and prevented disease progression and transmission. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses. 1992;8:1483–1487. [PubMed: 1281660]
  318. Shibata D., Weiss L.M., Hernandez A.M., Nathwani B.N., Bernstein L., Levine A.M. Epstein-Barr virus-associated non-Hodgkin's lymphoma in patients infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. Blood. 1993;81:2102–2109. [PubMed: 8386027]
  319. Shiramizu B., Herndier B.G., McGrath M.S. Identification of a common clonal human immunodeficiency virus integration site in human immunodeficiency virus-associated lymphomas. Cancer. Res. 1994;54:2069–2072. [PubMed: 8174106]
  320. Simmonds P., Balfe P., Peutherer J.F., Ludlam C.A., Bishop J.O., Brown A.J. Human immunodeficiency virus-infected individuals contain provirus in small numbers of peripheral mononuclear cells and at low copy numbers. J. Virol. 1990;64:864–872. [PMC free article: PMC249182] [PubMed: 2296085]
  321. Simmonds P., Zhang L.Q., McOmish F., Balfe P., Ludlam C.A., Brown A.J. Discontinuous sequence change of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) type 1 env sequences in plasma viral and lymphocyte-associated proviral populations in vivo: Implications for models of HIV pathogenesis. J. Virol. 1991;65:6266–6276. [PMC free article: PMC250328] [PubMed: 1920632]
  322. Simmons G., Wilkinson D., Reeves J.D., Dittmar M.T., Beddows S., Weber J., Carnegie G., Desselberger U., Gray P.W., Weiss R.A., Clapham P.R. Primary, syncytium-inducing human immunodeficiency virus type 1 isolates are dual-tropic and most can use either Lestr or CCR5 as coreceptors for virus entry. J. Virol. 1996;70:8355–8360. [PMC free article: PMC190923] [PubMed: 8970955]
  323. Simon M.A., Brodie S.J., Sasseville V.G., Chalifoux L.V., Desrosiers R.C., Ringler D.J. Immunopathogenesis of SIVmac. Virus Res. 1994;32:227–251. [PubMed: 8067055]
  324. Smith P.D. Role of cytokines in infectious and noninfectious enteropathy in patients with AIDS. Immunol. Res. 1991;10:447–451. [PubMed: 1659606]
  325. Smith P.D., Quinn T.C., Strober W., Janoff E.N., Masur H. NIH conference: Gastrointestinal infections in AIDS. Ann. Intern. Med. 1992;116:63–77. [PubMed: 1463471]
  326. Soto-Ramirez L.E., Renjifo B.M., McLane M.F., Marlink R., O'Hara C., Sutthent R., Wasi C., Vithayasai P., Vithayasai V., Apichartpiyakui C., Auewarakul P., Peña Cruz V., Chui D.-S., Osathanondh R., Mayer K., Lee T.-H., Essex M. HIV-1 Langerhans' cell tropism associated with heterosexual transmission of HIV. Science. 1996;271:1291–1293. [PubMed: 8638113]
  327. Soudeyns H., Rebai N., Pantaleo G.P., Ciurli C., Boghossian T., Sékaly R.P., Fauci A.S. The T cell receptor Vβ repertoire in HIV-1 infection and disease. Semin. Immunol. 1993;5:175–185. [PubMed: 8102262]
  328. Spear G.T., Ou C.Y., Kessler H.A., Moore J.L., Schochetman G., Landay A.L. Analysis of lymphocytes, monocytes, and neutrophils from human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected persons for HIV DNA. J. Infect. Dis. 1990;162:1239–1244. [PubMed: 1977808]
  329. Stamatatos L., Cheng-Mayer C. Evidence that the structural conformation of envelope gp120 affects human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infectivity, host range, and syncytium-forming ability. J. Virol. 1993;67:5635–5639. [PMC free article: PMC237967] [PubMed: 8350416]
  330. Stanley S.K., Fauci A.S. T cell homeostasis in HIV infection: Part of the solution, or part of the problem? J. Acquired Immune Defic. Syndr. 1993;6:142–143. [PubMed: 8433279]
  331. Stanley S.K., Kessler S.W., Justement J.S., Schnittman S.M., Greenhouse J.J., Brown C.C., Musongela L., Musey K., Kapita B., Fauci A.S. CD34+ bone marrow cells are infected with HIV in a subset of seropositive individuals. J. Immunol. 1992;149:689–697. [PubMed: 1378076]
  332. Stanley S.K., McCune J.M., Kaneshima H., Justement J.S., Sullivan M., Boone E., Baseler M., Adelsberger J., Bonyhadi M., Orenstein J. Human immunodeficiency virus infection of the human thymus and disruption of the thymic microenvironment in the SCID-hu mouse. J Exp. Med. 1993;178:1151–1163. [PMC free article: PMC2191215] [PubMed: 8376927]
  333. Stanley S.K., Ostrowski M.A., Justement J.S., Gantt K., Hedayati S., Mannix M., Roche K., Schwartzentruber D.J., Fox C.H., Fauci A.S. Effect of immunization with a common recall antigen on viral expression in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1. N. Engl. J. Med. 1996;334:1222–1230. [PubMed: 8606717]
  334. Starcich B.R., Hahn B.H., Shaw G.M., McNeely P.D., Modrow S., Wolf H., Parks E.S., Parks W.P., Josephs S.F., Gallo R.C., Wong-Staal F. Identification and characterization of conserved and variable regions in the envelope gene of HTLV-III/ LAV, the retrovirus of AIDS. Cell. 1986;45:637–648. [PubMed: 2423250]
  335. Steimer K.S., Scandella C.J., Skiles P.V., Haigwood N.L. Neutralization of divergent HIV-1 isolates by conformation-dependent human antibodies to Gp120. Science. 1991;254:105–108. [PubMed: 1718036]
  336. St. Louis M.E., Kamenga M., Brown C., Nelson A.M., Manzila T., Batter V., Behets F., Kabagabo U., Ryder R.W., Oxtoby M. Risk for perinatal HIV-1 transmission according to maternal immunologic, virologic, and placental factors. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 1993;269:2853–2859. [PubMed: 8098783]
  337. Straub O.C. Caprine arthritis encephalitis—A model for AIDS. Intervirology. 1989;30:45–50. [PubMed: 2540113]
  338. Su I.J., Hsu Y.S., Chang Y.C., Wang I.W. Herpesvirus-like DNA sequence in Kaposi's sarcoma from AIDS and non-AIDS patients in Taiwan. Lancet. 1995;345:722–723. [PubMed: 7885137]
  339. Takeda A., Tuazon C.U., Ennis F.A. Antibody-enhanced infection by HIV-1 via Fc receptor-mediated entry. Science. 1988;242:580–583. [PubMed: 2972065]
  340. Takeuchi Y., Akutsu M., Murayama K., Shimizu N., Hoshino H. Host range mutant of human immunodeficiency virus type 1: Modification of cell tropism by a single point mutation at the neutralization epitope in the env gene. J. Virol. 1991;65:1710–1718. [PMC free article: PMC239975] [PubMed: 2002539]
  341. Tanaka K.E., Hatch W.C., Kress Y., Soeiro R., Calvelli T., Rashbaum W.K., Rubinstein A., Lyman W.D. HIV-1 infection of human fetal thymocytes. J. Acquired Immune Defic. Syndr. 1992;5:94–101. [PubMed: 1738092]
  342. Terpstra F.G., Al B.J., Roos M.T., de Wolf F., Goudsmit J., Schellekens P.T., Miedema F. Longitudinal study of leukocyte functions in homosexual men for HIV: Rapid and persistent loss of B cell function after HIV infection. Eur. J. Immunol. 1989;19:667–673. [PubMed: 2567244]
  343. Tersmette M., de Goede R.E., Al B.J., Winkel I.N., Gruters R.A., Cuypers H.T., Huisman H.G., Miedema F. Differential syncytium-inducing capacity of human immunodeficiency virus isolates: Frequent detection of syncytium-inducing isolates in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and AIDS-related complex. J. Virol. 1988;62:2026–2032. [PMC free article: PMC253287] [PubMed: 3130494]
  344. Tersmette M., Lange J.M., de Goede R.E., de Wolf F., Eeftink-Schattenkerk J.K., Schellekens P.T., Coutinho R.A., Huisman J.G., Goudsmit J., Miedema F. Association between biological properties of human immunodeficiency virus variants and risk for AIDS and AIDS mortality. Lancet. 1989;I:983–985. [PubMed: 2565516]
  345. Thali M., Olshevsky U., Furman C., Gabuzda D., Posner M., Sodroski J. Characterization of a discontinuous human immunodeficiency virus type 1 gp120 epitope recognized by a broadly reactive neutralizing human monoclonal antibody. J. Virol. 1991;65:6188–6193. [PMC free article: PMC250310] [PubMed: 1717717]
  346. Thompson C.B. Apoptosis in the pathogenesis and treatment of disease. Science. 1995;267:1456–1462. [PubMed: 7878464]
  347. Tindall B., Cooper D.A. Primary HIV infection: Host responses and intervention strategies. AIDS. 1991;5:1–14. [PubMed: 1812848]
  348. Tremblay M., Wainberg M.A. Neutralization of multiple HIV-1 isolates from a single subject by autologous sequential sera. J. Infect. Dis. 1990;162:735–737. [PubMed: 2387997]
  349. Vago L., Castagna A., Lazzarin A., Trabattoni G., Cinque P., Costanzi G. Reduced frequency of HIV-induced brain lesions in AIDS patients treated with zidovudine. J. Acquired Immune Defic. Syndr. 1993;6:42–45. [PubMed: 8417173]
  350. Vanden Haesevelde M.M., Peeters M., Jannes G., Janssens W., Van der Groen G., Sharp P.M., Saman E. Sequence analysis of a highly divergent HIV-1-related lentivirus isolated from a wild captured chimpanzee. Virology. 1996;221:346–350. [PubMed: 8661445]
  351. Van Kuyk R., Torbett B.E., Gulizia R.J., MacIsaac P.D., Leath S., Mosier D.E., Koenig S. 1993Human CTL specific for the Nef protein of HIV protect hu-PBL SCID mice from HIV infection AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses 9s77(Abstr.).
  352. Walker B.D., Plata F. Cytotoxic T lymphocytes against HIV. AIDS. 1990;4:177–184. [PubMed: 1693514]
  353. Wang W.-K., Essex M., McLane M.F., Mayer K.H., Hsieh C.-C., Brumblay H.G., Seage G., Lee T.-H. Pattern of gp120 sequence divergence linked to a lack of clinical progression in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1996;93:6693–6697. [PMC free article: PMC39088] [PubMed: 8692880]
  354. Warren R.Q., Anderson S.A., Nkya W.M., Shao J.F., Hendrix C.W., Melcher G.P., Redfield R.R., Kennedy R.C. Examination of sera from human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1)-infected individuals for antibodies reactive with peptides corresponding to the principal neutralizing determinant of HIV-1 gp120 and for in vitro neutralizing activity. J. Virol. 1992;66:5210–5215. [PMC free article: PMC289073] [PubMed: 1380094]
  355. Wei X., Ghosh S.K., Taylor M.E., Johnson V.A., Emini E.A., Deutsch P., Lifson J.D., Bonhoeffer S., Nowak M.A., Hahn B.H., Saag M.S., Shaw G.M. Viral dynamics in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. Nature. 1995;373:117–122. [PubMed: 7529365]
  356. Weinhold K.J., Lyerly H.K., Stanley S.D., Austin A.A., Matthews T.J., Bolognesi D.P. HIV-1 GP120-mediated immune suppression and lymphocyte destruction in the absence of viral infection. J. Immunol. 1989;142:3091–3097. [PubMed: 2468713]
  357. Weller S.C. A meta-analysis of condom effectiveness in reducing sexually transmitted HIV (comments). Soc. Sci. Med. 1993;36:1635–1644. [PubMed: 8327927]
  358. Weller S.K., Joy A.E., Temin H.M. Correlation between cell killing and massive second round superinfection by members of some subgroups of avian leukosis virus. J. Virol. 1980;33:494–506. [PMC free article: PMC288564] [PubMed: 6245246]
  359. Whitby D., Howard M.R., Tenant-Flowers M., Brink N.S., Copas A., Boshoff C., Hatzioannou T., Suggett F.E.A., Aldam D.M., Denton A.S., Miller R.F., Weller I.V.D., Weiss R.A., Tedder R.S., Schulz T.F. Detection of Kaposi's sarcoma associated herpesvirus in peripheral blood of HIV-infected individuals and progression to Kaposi's sarcoma. Lancet. 1995;346:799–802. [PubMed: 7674745]
  360. Wike C.M., Korber B.T., Daniels M.R., Hutto C., Muñoz J., Furtado M., Parks W., Saah A., Bulterys M., Kurawige J.-B. HIV-1 sequence variation between isolates from mother–infant transmission pairs. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses. 1992;8:1297–1300. [PubMed: 1520542]
  361. Wiley C.A., Schrier R.D., Nelson J.A., Lampert P.W., Oldstone M.B. Cellular localization of human immunodeficiency virus infection within the brains of acquired immune deficiency syndrome patients. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1986;83:7089–7093. [PMC free article: PMC386658] [PubMed: 3018755]
  362. Willey R.L., Maldarelli F., Martin M.A., Strebel K. Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Vpu protein regulates the formation of intracellular gp160-CD4 complexes. J. Virol. 1992a;66:226–234. [PMC free article: PMC238279] [PubMed: 1727486]
  363. Willey R.L., Maldarelli F., Martin M.A., Strebel K. Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Vpu protein induces rapid degradation of CD4. J. Virol. 1992b;66:7193–7200. [PMC free article: PMC240416] [PubMed: 1433512]
  364. Willey R.L., Rutledge R.A., Dias S., Folks T., Theodore T., Buckler C.E., Martin M.A. Identification of conserved and divergent domains within the envelope gene of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome retrovirus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1986;83:5038–5042. [PMC free article: PMC323885] [PubMed: 3014529]
  365. Wiskerchen M., Chang-Mayer C. HIV-1 nef association with cellular serine kinase correlates with enhanced virion infectivity and efficient proviral DNA synthesis. Virology. 1996;224:292–301. [PubMed: 8862424]
  366. Wolinsky S.M., Wike C.M., Korber B.T.M., Hutto C., Parks W.P., Rosenblum L.L., Kunstman K.J., Furtado M.R., Muñoz J.L. Selective transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type-1 variants from mothers to infants. Science. 1992;255:1134–1137. [PubMed: 1546316]
  367. Wolinsky S.M., Korber B.T.M., Neumann A.U., Daniels M., Kunstman K.J., Whetsell A.J., Furtado M.R., Cao Y., Ho D.D., Safrit J.T., Koup R.A. Adaptive evolution of human immunodeficiency virus-type 1 during the natural course of infection. Science. 1996;272:537–542. [PubMed: 8614801]
  368. Wyand M.S., Manson K.H., Garcia-Moll M., Montefiori D., Desrosiers R.C. Vaccine protection by a triple deletion mutant of simian immunodeficiency virus. J. Virol. 1996;70:3724–3733. [PMC free article: PMC190248] [PubMed: 8648707]
  369. Wyand M.S., Ringler D.J., Naidu Y.M., Mattmuller M., Chalifoux L.V., Sehgal P.K., Daniel M.D., Desrosiers R.C., King N.W. Cellular localization of simian immunodeficiency virus in lymphoid tissues. II. In situ hybridization. Am. J. Pathol. 1989;134:385–393. [PMC free article: PMC1879575] [PubMed: 2537017]
  370. Yahi N., Baghdiguian S., Moreau H., Fantini J. Galactosyl ceramide (or a closely related molecule) is the receptor for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 on human colon epithelial HT29 cells. J. Virol. 1992;66:4848–4854. [PMC free article: PMC241313] [PubMed: 1378511]
  371. Yang O.O., Kalams S.A., Rosenzweig M., Trocha A., Jones N., Kosiel M., Walker B.D., Johnson R.P. Efficient lysis of human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected cells by cytotoxic T lymphocytes. J. Virol. 1996;70:5799–5800. [PMC free article: PMC190594] [PubMed: 8709196]
  372. Zack J.A., Haislip A.M., Krogstad P., Chen I.S. Incompletely reverse-transcribed human immunodeficiency virus type 1 genomes in quiescent cells can function as intermediates in the retroviral life cycle. J. Virol. 1992;66:1717–1725. [PMC free article: PMC240919] [PubMed: 1371173]
  373. Zack J.A., Arrigo S.J., Weitsman S.R., Go A.S., Haislip A., Chen I.S. HIV-1 entry into quiescent primary lymphocytes: Molecular analysis reveals a labile, latent viral structure. Cell. 1990;61:213–222. [PubMed: 2331748]
  374. Zauli G., Re M.C., Furlini G., Giovannini M., La Placa M. Evidence for an HIV-1 mediated suppression of in vitro growth of enriched (CD34+) hematopoietic progenitors. J. Acquired Immune Defic. Syndr. 1991;4:1251–1253. [PubMed: 1719189]
  375. Zauli G., Re M.C., Furlini G., Giovannini M., La Placa M. Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 envelope glycoprotein gp120-mediated killing of human haematopoietic progenitors (CD34+ cells). J. Gen. Virol. 1992;73:417–421. [PubMed: 1371543]
  376. Zhang L.Q., MacKenzie P., Cleland A., Holmes E.C., Brown A.J., Simmonds P. Selection for specific sequences in the external envelope protein of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 upon primary infection. J. Virol. 1993;67:3345–3356. [PMC free article: PMC237678] [PubMed: 8497055]
  377. Zhong W., Wang H., Herndier B., Ganem D. Restricted expression of Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (human herpesvirus 8) genes in Kaposi sarcoma. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1996;93:6641–6646. [PMC free article: PMC39079] [PubMed: 8692871]
  378. Zhu T., Mo H., Wang N., Nam D.S., Cao Y., Koup R.A., Ho D.D. Genotypic and phenotypic characterization of HIV-1 patients with primary infection. Science. 1993;261:1179–1181. [PubMed: 8356453]
  379. Ziegler J.L., Stites D.P. Hypothesis: AIDS is an autoimmune disease directed at the immune system and triggered by a lymphotropic retrovirus. Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol. 1986;41:305–313. [PubMed: 2946499]
  380. zur Hausen H. Viruses in human cancers. Science. 1991;254:1167–1173. [PubMed: 1659743]
Copyright © 1997, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press.
Bookshelf ID: NBK19364

Views

  • PubReader
  • Print View
  • Cite this Page

Related Items in Bookshelf

Related information

  • PMC
    PubMed Central citations
  • PubMed
    Links to PubMed

Recent Activity

Your browsing activity is empty.

Activity recording is turned off.

Turn recording back on

See more...