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Albinism

MedGen UID:
182
Concept ID:
C0001916
Disease or Syndrome
Synonyms: Achromasia; albinism; Albinismus
SNOMED CT: Albinism (15890002); Albinismus (15890002)
 
HPO: HP:0001022
Monarch Initiative: MONDO:0043209

Definition

An abnormal reduction in the amount of pigmentation (reduced or absent) of skin, hair and eye (iris and retina). [from HPO]

Conditions with this feature

Tyrosinase-positive oculocutaneous albinism
MedGen UID:
82810
Concept ID:
C0268495
Disease or Syndrome
Tyrosinase-positive oculocutaneous albinism (OCA, type II; OCA2) is an autosomal recessive disorder in which the biosynthesis of melanin pigment is reduced in skin, hair, and eyes. Although affected infants may appear at birth to have OCA type I, or complete absence of melanin pigment, most patients with OCA type II acquire small amounts of pigment with age. Individuals with OCA type II have the characteristic visual anomalies associated with albinism, including decreased acuity and nystagmus, which are usually less severe than in OCA type I (Lee et al., 1994; King et al., 2001). OCA type II has a highly variable phenotype. The hair of affected individuals may turn darker with age, and pigmented nevi or freckles may be seen. African and African American individuals may have yellow hair and blue-gray or hazel irides. One phenotypic variant, 'brown OCA,' has been described in African and African American populations and is characterized by light brown hair and skin color and gray to tan irides. The hair and irides may turn darker with time and the skin may tan with sun exposure; the ocular features of albinism are present in all variants (King et al., 2001). In addition, previous reports of so-called 'autosomal recessive ocular albinism,' (see, e.g., Witkop et al., 1978 and O'Donnell et al., 1978) with little or no obvious skin involvement, are now considered most likely to be part of the phenotypic spectrum of OCA1 or OCA2 (Lee et al., 1994; King et al., 2001).
Oculocutaneous albinism type 3
MedGen UID:
87450
Concept ID:
C0342683
Disease or Syndrome
There are several additional, rare types of oculocutaneous albinism.\n\nResearchers have identified multiple types of oculocutaneous albinism, which are distinguished by their specific skin, hair, and eye color changes, and by their genetic cause. Oculocutaneous albinism type 1 is characterized by white hair, very pale skin, and light-colored irises. Type 2 is typically less severe than type 1; the skin is usually pale and hair may be light yellow, blond, or light brown. Type 3 causes reddish-brown skin, ginger or red hair, and hazel or brown irises. Type 3 is often associated with milder vision abnormalities than the other forms of oculocutaneous albinism. Type 4 has signs and symptoms similar to those seen in people with type 2.\n\nOculocutaneous albinism also reduces pigmentation of the colored part of the eye (the iris) and the light-sensitive tissue at the back of the eye (the retina). People with this condition usually have vision problems such as reduced sharpness; rapid, involuntary eye movements (nystagmus); eyes that do not point in the same direction (strabismus); and increased sensitivity to light (photophobia).\n\nOculocutaneous albinism is a group of conditions that affect the color of (pigmentation) of the skin, hair, and eyes. Affected individuals typically have very fair skin and white or light-colored hair. Long-term sun exposure greatly increases the risk of skin damage and skin cancers, including an aggressive form of skin cancer called melanoma, in people with this condition. 
ABCD syndrome
MedGen UID:
333014
Concept ID:
C1838099
Disease or Syndrome
ABCD syndrome (ABCDS) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by albinism, black lock, cell migration disorder of the neurocytes of the gut (Hirschsprung disease), and deafness (summary by Verheij et al., 2002).
Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome 2
MedGen UID:
374912
Concept ID:
C1842362
Disease or Syndrome
Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome (HPS) is characterized by oculocutaneous albinism, a bleeding diathesis, and, in some individuals, pulmonary fibrosis, granulomatous colitis, or immunodeficiency. Ocular findings include reduced iris pigment with iris transillumination, reduced retinal pigment, foveal hypoplasia with significant reduction in visual acuity (usually in the range of 20/50 to 20/400), nystagmus, and increased crossing of the optic nerve fibers. Hair color ranges from white to brown; skin color ranges from white to olive and is usually a shade lighter than that of other family members. The bleeding diathesis can result in variable bruising, epistaxis, gingival bleeding, postpartum hemorrhage, colonic bleeding, and prolonged bleeding with menses or after tooth extraction, circumcision, and other surgeries. Pulmonary fibrosis, a restrictive lung disease, typically causes symptoms in the early thirties and can progress to death within a decade. Granulomatous colitis is severe in about 15% of affected individuals. Neutropenia and/or immune defects occur primarily in individuals with pathogenic variants in AP3B1 and AP3D1.
Albinism-hearing loss syndrome
MedGen UID:
375573
Concept ID:
C1845068
Disease or Syndrome
Syndrome with characteristics of congenital nerve deafness and piebaldness without ocular albinism. Transmission is X-linked with affected males presenting with profound sensorineural deafness and severe pigmentary abnormalities of the skin and carrier females presenting with variable hearing impairment without any pigmentary changes. The causative gene has been mapped to Xq26.3-q27.1.
Ocular albinism with late-onset sensorineural deafness
MedGen UID:
337149
Concept ID:
C1845069
Congenital Abnormality
Ocular albinism is a genetic condition that primarily affects the eyes. This condition reduces the coloring (pigmentation) of the iris, which is the colored part of the eye, and the retina, which is the light-sensitive tissue at the back of the eye. Pigmentation in the eye is essential for normal vision.\n\nOcular albinism is characterized by severely impaired sharpness of vision (visual acuity) and problems with combining vision from both eyes to perceive depth (stereoscopic vision). Although the vision loss is permanent, it does not worsen over time. Other eye abnormalities associated with this condition include rapid, involuntary eye movements (nystagmus); eyes that do not look in the same direction (strabismus); and increased sensitivity to light (photophobia). Many affected individuals also have abnormalities involving the optic nerves, which carry visual information from the eye to the brain.\n\nUnlike some other forms of albinism, ocular albinism does not significantly affect the color of the skin and hair. People with this condition may have a somewhat lighter complexion than other members of their family, but these differences are usually minor.\n\nThe most common form of ocular albinism is known as the Nettleship-Falls type or type 1. Other forms of ocular albinism are much rarer and may be associated with additional signs and symptoms, such as hearing loss.
Oculocutaneous albinism type 1B
MedGen UID:
337712
Concept ID:
C1847024
Disease or Syndrome
Oculocutaneous albinism type I is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by absence of pigment in hair, skin, and eyes, and does not vary with race or age. Severe nystagmus, photophobia, and reduced visual acuity are common features. OCA type I is divided into 2 types: type IA, characterized by complete lack of tyrosinase activity due to production of an inactive enzyme, and type IB, characterized by reduced activity of tyrosinase. Although OCA caused by mutations in the TYR gene was classically known as 'tyrosinase-negative' OCA, Tripathi et al. (1992) noted that some patients with 'tyrosinase-positive' OCA may indeed have TYR mutations resulting in residual enzyme activity. These patients can be classified as having OCA1B.
Oculocutaneous albinism type 4
MedGen UID:
338324
Concept ID:
C1847836
Disease or Syndrome
Oculocutaneous albinism type 4 (OCA4) is characterized by hypopigmentation of the hair and skin plus the characteristic ocular changes found in all other types of albinism, including: nystagmus; reduced iris pigment with iris translucency; reduced retinal pigment with visualization of the choroidal blood vessels on ophthalmoscopic examination; foveal hypoplasia associated with reduction in visual acuity; and misrouting of the optic nerves at the chiasm associated with alternating strabismus, reduced stereoscopic vision, and an altered visual evoked potential (VEP). Individuals with OCA4 are usually recognized within the first year of life because of hypopigmentation of the hair and skin and the ocular features of nystagmus and strabismus. Vision is likely to be stable after early childhood. The amount of cutaneous pigmentation in OCA4 ranges from minimal to near normal. Newborns with OCA4 usually have some pigment in their hair, with color ranging from silvery white to light yellow. Hair color may darken with time, but does not vary significantly from childhood to adulthood.
Vici syndrome
MedGen UID:
340962
Concept ID:
C1855772
Disease or Syndrome
With the current widespread use of multigene panels and comprehensive genomic testing, it has become apparent that the phenotypic spectrum of EPG5-related disorder represents a continuum. At the most severe end of the spectrum is classic Vici syndrome (defined as a neurodevelopmental disorder with multisystem involvement characterized by the combination of agenesis of the corpus callosum, cataracts, hypopigmentation, cardiomyopathy, combined immunodeficiency, microcephaly, and failure to thrive); at the milder end of the spectrum are attenuated neurodevelopmental phenotypes with variable multisystem involvement. Median survival in classic Vici syndrome appears to be 24 months, with only 10% of children surviving longer than age five years; the most common causes of death are respiratory infections as a result of primary immunodeficiency and/or cardiac insufficiency resulting from progressive cardiac failure. No data are available on life span in individuals at the milder end of the spectrum.
Deafness, congenital, with total albinism
MedGen UID:
387799
Concept ID:
C1857343
Disease or Syndrome
Microcephaly-albinism-digital anomalies syndrome
MedGen UID:
395372
Concept ID:
C1859910
Disease or Syndrome
A very rare syndrome associating microcephaly, micrognathia, oculocutaneous albinism, hypoplasia of the distal phalanx of fingers and agenesia of the distal end of the right big toe. It has been described in two siblings. Both brother and sister had psychomotor retardation and died in the course of a respiratory infection. The reported cases suggest that the condition is hereditary, and is transmitted as an autosomal recessive trait.
Waardenburg syndrome type 2A
MedGen UID:
349786
Concept ID:
C1860339
Disease or Syndrome
Waardenburg syndrome type 2 (WS2) is an autosomal dominant auditory-pigmentary syndrome characterized by pigmentary abnormalities of the hair, skin, and eyes; congenital sensorineural hearing loss; and the absence of 'dystopia canthorum,' the lateral displacement of the ocular inner canthi, which is seen in some other forms of WS (reviews by Read and Newton, 1997 and Pingault et al., 2010). Clinical Variability of Waardenburg Syndrome Types 1-4 Waardenburg syndrome has been classified into 4 main phenotypes. Waardenburg syndrome type 1 (WS1; 193500) is characterized by pigmentary abnormalities of the hair, including a white forelock and premature graying; pigmentary changes of the iris, such as heterochromia iridis and brilliant blue eyes; congenital sensorineural hearing loss; and 'dystopia canthorum.' WS type 2 (WS2) is distinguished from type 1 by the absence of dystopia canthorum. WS type 3 (WS3; 148820) has dystopia canthorum and is distinguished by the presence of upper limb abnormalities. WS type 4 (WS4; 277580), also known as Waardenburg-Shah syndrome, has the additional feature of Hirschsprung disease (reviews by Read and Newton, 1997 and Pingault et al., 2010). Genetic Heterogeneity of Waardenburg Syndrome Type 2 Waardenburg syndrome type 2 is a genetically heterogeneous disorder. WS2B (600193) has been mapped to chromosome 1p. WS2C (606662) has been mapped to chromosome 8p23. WS2E (611584) is caused by mutation in the SOX10 gene (602229) on chromosome 22q13. WS2F (619947) is caused by mutation in the KITLG gene (184745) on chromosome 12q21. A form of WS2, designated WS2D, was thought to be caused by deletion of the SNAI2 gene (602150.0001), but the deletion has been reclassified as a variant of unknown significance.
Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome 1
MedGen UID:
419514
Concept ID:
C2931875
Disease or Syndrome
Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome (HPS) is characterized by oculocutaneous albinism, a bleeding diathesis, and, in some individuals, pulmonary fibrosis, granulomatous colitis, or immunodeficiency. Ocular findings include reduced iris pigment with iris transillumination, reduced retinal pigment, foveal hypoplasia with significant reduction in visual acuity (usually in the range of 20/50 to 20/400), nystagmus, and increased crossing of the optic nerve fibers. Hair color ranges from white to brown; skin color ranges from white to olive and is usually a shade lighter than that of other family members. The bleeding diathesis can result in variable bruising, epistaxis, gingival bleeding, postpartum hemorrhage, colonic bleeding, and prolonged bleeding with menses or after tooth extraction, circumcision, and other surgeries. Pulmonary fibrosis, a restrictive lung disease, typically causes symptoms in the early thirties and can progress to death within a decade. Granulomatous colitis is severe in about 15% of affected individuals. Neutropenia and/or immune defects occur primarily in individuals with pathogenic variants in AP3B1 and AP3D1.
Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome 7
MedGen UID:
481386
Concept ID:
C3279756
Disease or Syndrome
Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome (HPS) is characterized by oculocutaneous albinism, a bleeding diathesis, and, in some individuals, pulmonary fibrosis, granulomatous colitis, or immunodeficiency. Ocular findings include reduced iris pigment with iris transillumination, reduced retinal pigment, foveal hypoplasia with significant reduction in visual acuity (usually in the range of 20/50 to 20/400), nystagmus, and increased crossing of the optic nerve fibers. Hair color ranges from white to brown; skin color ranges from white to olive and is usually a shade lighter than that of other family members. The bleeding diathesis can result in variable bruising, epistaxis, gingival bleeding, postpartum hemorrhage, colonic bleeding, and prolonged bleeding with menses or after tooth extraction, circumcision, and other surgeries. Pulmonary fibrosis, a restrictive lung disease, typically causes symptoms in the early thirties and can progress to death within a decade. Granulomatous colitis is severe in about 15% of affected individuals. Neutropenia and/or immune defects occur primarily in individuals with pathogenic variants in AP3B1 and AP3D1.
Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome 4
MedGen UID:
483344
Concept ID:
C3484357
Disease or Syndrome
Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome (HPS) is characterized by oculocutaneous albinism, a bleeding diathesis, and, in some individuals, pulmonary fibrosis, granulomatous colitis, or immunodeficiency. Ocular findings include reduced iris pigment with iris transillumination, reduced retinal pigment, foveal hypoplasia with significant reduction in visual acuity (usually in the range of 20/50 to 20/400), nystagmus, and increased crossing of the optic nerve fibers. Hair color ranges from white to brown; skin color ranges from white to olive and is usually a shade lighter than that of other family members. The bleeding diathesis can result in variable bruising, epistaxis, gingival bleeding, postpartum hemorrhage, colonic bleeding, and prolonged bleeding with menses or after tooth extraction, circumcision, and other surgeries. Pulmonary fibrosis, a restrictive lung disease, typically causes symptoms in the early thirties and can progress to death within a decade. Granulomatous colitis is severe in about 15% of affected individuals. Neutropenia and/or immune defects occur primarily in individuals with pathogenic variants in AP3B1 and AP3D1.
Oculocutaneous albinism type 7
MedGen UID:
815116
Concept ID:
C3808786
Disease or Syndrome
Oculocutaneous albinism type VII (OCA7) is an autosomal recessive hypopigmentation disorder with predominant eye involvement including nystagmus, iris transillumination, and crossed asymmetry of the cortical visual response (Gronskov et al., 2013). For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of oculocutaneous albinism, see OCA1 (203100).
Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome 3
MedGen UID:
854708
Concept ID:
C3888001
Disease or Syndrome
Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome (HPS) is characterized by oculocutaneous albinism, a bleeding diathesis, and, in some individuals, pulmonary fibrosis, granulomatous colitis, or immunodeficiency. Ocular findings include reduced iris pigment with iris transillumination, reduced retinal pigment, foveal hypoplasia with significant reduction in visual acuity (usually in the range of 20/50 to 20/400), nystagmus, and increased crossing of the optic nerve fibers. Hair color ranges from white to brown; skin color ranges from white to olive and is usually a shade lighter than that of other family members. The bleeding diathesis can result in variable bruising, epistaxis, gingival bleeding, postpartum hemorrhage, colonic bleeding, and prolonged bleeding with menses or after tooth extraction, circumcision, and other surgeries. Pulmonary fibrosis, a restrictive lung disease, typically causes symptoms in the early thirties and can progress to death within a decade. Granulomatous colitis is severe in about 15% of affected individuals. Neutropenia and/or immune defects occur primarily in individuals with pathogenic variants in AP3B1 and AP3D1.
Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome 5
MedGen UID:
854711
Concept ID:
C3888004
Disease or Syndrome
Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome (HPS) is characterized by oculocutaneous albinism, a bleeding diathesis, and, in some individuals, pulmonary fibrosis, granulomatous colitis, or immunodeficiency. Ocular findings include reduced iris pigment with iris transillumination, reduced retinal pigment, foveal hypoplasia with significant reduction in visual acuity (usually in the range of 20/50 to 20/400), nystagmus, and increased crossing of the optic nerve fibers. Hair color ranges from white to brown; skin color ranges from white to olive and is usually a shade lighter than that of other family members. The bleeding diathesis can result in variable bruising, epistaxis, gingival bleeding, postpartum hemorrhage, colonic bleeding, and prolonged bleeding with menses or after tooth extraction, circumcision, and other surgeries. Pulmonary fibrosis, a restrictive lung disease, typically causes symptoms in the early thirties and can progress to death within a decade. Granulomatous colitis is severe in about 15% of affected individuals. Neutropenia and/or immune defects occur primarily in individuals with pathogenic variants in AP3B1 and AP3D1.
Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome 6
MedGen UID:
854714
Concept ID:
C3888007
Disease or Syndrome
Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome (HPS) is characterized by oculocutaneous albinism, a bleeding diathesis, and, in some individuals, pulmonary fibrosis, granulomatous colitis, or immunodeficiency. Ocular findings include reduced iris pigment with iris transillumination, reduced retinal pigment, foveal hypoplasia with significant reduction in visual acuity (usually in the range of 20/50 to 20/400), nystagmus, and increased crossing of the optic nerve fibers. Hair color ranges from white to brown; skin color ranges from white to olive and is usually a shade lighter than that of other family members. The bleeding diathesis can result in variable bruising, epistaxis, gingival bleeding, postpartum hemorrhage, colonic bleeding, and prolonged bleeding with menses or after tooth extraction, circumcision, and other surgeries. Pulmonary fibrosis, a restrictive lung disease, typically causes symptoms in the early thirties and can progress to death within a decade. Granulomatous colitis is severe in about 15% of affected individuals. Neutropenia and/or immune defects occur primarily in individuals with pathogenic variants in AP3B1 and AP3D1.
Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome 8
MedGen UID:
854728
Concept ID:
C3888026
Disease or Syndrome
Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome (HPS) is characterized by oculocutaneous albinism, a bleeding diathesis, and, in some individuals, pulmonary fibrosis, granulomatous colitis, or immunodeficiency. Ocular findings include reduced iris pigment with iris transillumination, reduced retinal pigment, foveal hypoplasia with significant reduction in visual acuity (usually in the range of 20/50 to 20/400), nystagmus, and increased crossing of the optic nerve fibers. Hair color ranges from white to brown; skin color ranges from white to olive and is usually a shade lighter than that of other family members. The bleeding diathesis can result in variable bruising, epistaxis, gingival bleeding, postpartum hemorrhage, colonic bleeding, and prolonged bleeding with menses or after tooth extraction, circumcision, and other surgeries. Pulmonary fibrosis, a restrictive lung disease, typically causes symptoms in the early thirties and can progress to death within a decade. Granulomatous colitis is severe in about 15% of affected individuals. Neutropenia and/or immune defects occur primarily in individuals with pathogenic variants in AP3B1 and AP3D1.
Oculocutaneous albinism type 5
MedGen UID:
854888
Concept ID:
C3888401
Congenital Abnormality
Oculocutaneous albinism is a genetically heterogeneous disorder manifested as a loss of pigmentation in the eyes, skin, and hair (summary by Kausar et al., 2013). For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of oculocutaneous albinism, see OCA1 (203100).
Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome 10
MedGen UID:
934713
Concept ID:
C4310746
Disease or Syndrome
Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome (HPS) is characterized by oculocutaneous albinism, a bleeding diathesis, and, in some individuals, pulmonary fibrosis, granulomatous colitis, or immunodeficiency. Ocular findings include reduced iris pigment with iris transillumination, reduced retinal pigment, foveal hypoplasia with significant reduction in visual acuity (usually in the range of 20/50 to 20/400), nystagmus, and increased crossing of the optic nerve fibers. Hair color ranges from white to brown; skin color ranges from white to olive and is usually a shade lighter than that of other family members. The bleeding diathesis can result in variable bruising, epistaxis, gingival bleeding, postpartum hemorrhage, colonic bleeding, and prolonged bleeding with menses or after tooth extraction, circumcision, and other surgeries. Pulmonary fibrosis, a restrictive lung disease, typically causes symptoms in the early thirties and can progress to death within a decade. Granulomatous colitis is severe in about 15% of affected individuals. Neutropenia and/or immune defects occur primarily in individuals with pathogenic variants in AP3B1 and AP3D1.
Tyrosinase-negative oculocutaneous albinism
MedGen UID:
1643910
Concept ID:
C4551504
Disease or Syndrome
Researchers have identified multiple types of oculocutaneous albinism, which are distinguished by their specific skin, hair, and eye color changes, and by their genetic cause. Oculocutaneous albinism type 1 is characterized by white hair, very pale skin, and light-colored irises. Type 2 is typically less severe than type 1; the skin is usually pale and hair may be light yellow, blond, or light brown. Type 3 causes reddish-brown skin, ginger or red hair, and hazel or brown irises. Type 3 is often associated with milder vision abnormalities than the other forms of oculocutaneous albinism. Type 4 has signs and symptoms similar to those seen in people with type 2.\n\nThere are several additional, rare types of oculocutaneous albinism.\n\nOculocutaneous albinism also reduces pigmentation of the colored part of the eye (the iris) and the light-sensitive tissue at the back of the eye (the retina). People with this condition usually have vision problems such as reduced sharpness; rapid, involuntary eye movements (nystagmus); eyes that do not point in the same direction (strabismus); and increased sensitivity to light (photophobia).\n\nOculocutaneous albinism is a group of conditions that affect the color of (pigmentation) of the skin, hair, and eyes. Affected individuals typically have very fair skin and white or light-colored hair. Long-term sun exposure greatly increases the risk of skin damage and skin cancers, including an aggressive form of skin cancer called melanoma, in people with this condition. 
Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome 11
MedGen UID:
1727728
Concept ID:
C5436936
Disease or Syndrome
Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome (HPS) is characterized by oculocutaneous albinism, a bleeding diathesis, and, in some individuals, pulmonary fibrosis, granulomatous colitis, or immunodeficiency. Ocular findings include reduced iris pigment with iris transillumination, reduced retinal pigment, foveal hypoplasia with significant reduction in visual acuity (usually in the range of 20/50 to 20/400), nystagmus, and increased crossing of the optic nerve fibers. Hair color ranges from white to brown; skin color ranges from white to olive and is usually a shade lighter than that of other family members. The bleeding diathesis can result in variable bruising, epistaxis, gingival bleeding, postpartum hemorrhage, colonic bleeding, and prolonged bleeding with menses or after tooth extraction, circumcision, and other surgeries. Pulmonary fibrosis, a restrictive lung disease, typically causes symptoms in the early thirties and can progress to death within a decade. Granulomatous colitis is severe in about 15% of affected individuals. Neutropenia and/or immune defects occur primarily in individuals with pathogenic variants in AP3B1 and AP3D1.

Professional guidelines

PubMed

Thawabteh AM, Jibreen A, Karaman D, Thawabteh A, Karaman R
Molecules 2023 Jun 18;28(12) doi: 10.3390/molecules28124839. PMID: 37375394Free PMC Article
Yang L, Shu X, Mao S, Wang Y, Du X, Zou C
Genes (Basel) 2021 Jun 28;12(7) doi: 10.3390/genes12070987. PMID: 34203304Free PMC Article
Marçon CR, Maia M
An Bras Dermatol 2019 Sep-Oct;94(5):503-520. Epub 2019 Sep 30 doi: 10.1016/j.abd.2019.09.023. PMID: 31777350Free PMC Article

Recent clinical studies

Etiology

Liu S, Kuht HJ, Moon EH, Maconachie GDE, Thomas MG
Surv Ophthalmol 2021 Mar-Apr;66(2):362-377. Epub 2020 Oct 29 doi: 10.1016/j.survophthal.2020.10.007. PMID: 33129801
Huizing M, Malicdan MCV, Wang JA, Pri-Chen H, Hess RA, Fischer R, O'Brien KJ, Merideth MA, Gahl WA, Gochuico BR
Hum Mutat 2020 Mar;41(3):543-580. Epub 2020 Jan 23 doi: 10.1002/humu.23968. PMID: 31898847Free PMC Article
Marçon CR, Maia M
An Bras Dermatol 2019 Sep-Oct;94(5):503-520. Epub 2019 Sep 30 doi: 10.1016/j.abd.2019.09.023. PMID: 31777350Free PMC Article
Papageorgiou E, McLean RJ, Gottlob I
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Grønskov K, Ek J, Brondum-Nielsen K
Orphanet J Rare Dis 2007 Nov 2;2:43. doi: 10.1186/1750-1172-2-43. PMID: 17980020Free PMC Article

Diagnosis

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Grønskov K, Ek J, Brondum-Nielsen K
Orphanet J Rare Dis 2007 Nov 2;2:43. doi: 10.1186/1750-1172-2-43. PMID: 17980020Free PMC Article
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Therapy

Marçon CR, Maia M
An Bras Dermatol 2019 Sep-Oct;94(5):503-520. Epub 2019 Sep 30 doi: 10.1016/j.abd.2019.09.023. PMID: 31777350Free PMC Article
David CV
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Prognosis

Kuht HJ, Maconachie GDE, Han J, Kessel L, van Genderen MM, McLean RJ, Hisaund M, Tu Z, Hertle RW, Gronskov K, Bai D, Wei A, Li W, Jiao Y, Smirnov V, Choi JH, Tobin MD, Sheth V, Purohit R, Dawar B, Girach A, Strul S, May L, Chen FK, Heath Jeffery RC, Aamir A, Sano R, Jin J, Brooks BP, Kohl S, Arveiler B, Montoliu L, Engle EC, Proudlock FA, Nishad G, Pani P, Varma G, Gottlob I, Thomas MG
Ophthalmology 2022 Jun;129(6):708-718. Epub 2022 Feb 11 doi: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2022.02.010. PMID: 35157951Free PMC Article
Huizing M, Malicdan MCV, Wang JA, Pri-Chen H, Hess RA, Fischer R, O'Brien KJ, Merideth MA, Gahl WA, Gochuico BR
Hum Mutat 2020 Mar;41(3):543-580. Epub 2020 Jan 23 doi: 10.1002/humu.23968. PMID: 31898847Free PMC Article
Simeonov DR, Wang X, Wang C, Sergeev Y, Dolinska M, Bower M, Fischer R, Winer D, Dubrovsky G, Balog JZ, Huizing M, Hart R, Zein WM, Gahl WA, Brooks BP, Adams DR
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Clinical prediction guides

Huizing M, Malicdan MCV, Wang JA, Pri-Chen H, Hess RA, Fischer R, O'Brien KJ, Merideth MA, Gahl WA, Gochuico BR
Hum Mutat 2020 Mar;41(3):543-580. Epub 2020 Jan 23 doi: 10.1002/humu.23968. PMID: 31898847Free PMC Article
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