Route of administration:

• Oral
• Intravenous

• Any isotonic fluid that can be taken orally
• Fluids administered intravenously:

  • Saline (sodium chloride) solution at different concentrations (e.g. 0.45% or 0.9%)
  • Hartmann’s solution
  • Ringer’s lactate solution
  • IV fluid with additives:
  • Glucose
  • Potassium
  • Bicarbonate
  • Phosphate

Oral:

• Different volumes e.g. high volume or low volume (as defined by author)

• Different rates e.g. rapid rate, fast rate or slow rate (as defined by author)
• Different volumes e.g. high volume or low volume (as defined by author)

• Oral vs IV

• Different oral fluids compared to each other
• Different intravenous fluids compared to each other
• Different additives compared to each other
• Additives compared to no additives.

• Oral fluids:
• Different volumes compared to each other (low volume vs. high volume)

• Different rates compared to each other (e.g. slow rate vs. rapid rate)
• Different volumes compared to each other (low volume vs. high volume)

• Mortality
• Incidence of cerebral oedema (this could cause morbidity or mortality), to include participants with symptoms or signs suggestive of cerebral oedema (for example, development of unconsciousness) provided these are reported as being related to cerebral oedema
• Time to resolution of dehydration
• Rate of change of blood glucose concentration or resolution of hyperglycaemia
• Resolution of acidosis/ resolution of ketosis
• Serum chloride concentration
• Serum sodium concentration
• Healthcare utilisation (for example, duration of admission, requirement for ventilation [as a proxy for severity of DKA or presence of cerebral oedema])
• Acute cases of renal failure
• Neurologic status - decline in neurological status measured using validated scores such as the Glasgow Coma Scale score (e.g. magnitude of decline or the duration of time in which GCS was less than 14)
• IQ (assessed using validated scales such as the Wechsler Preschool and Primary School Scale of Intelligence short form)