Down syndrome, the most frequent form of mental retardation caused by a microscopically demonstrable chromosomal aberration, is characterized by well-defined and distinctive phenotypic features and natural history. It is caused by triplicate state (trisomy) of all or a critical portion of chromosome 21.

Holt-Oram syndrome (HOS) is characterized by upper-limb defects, congenital heart malformation, and cardiac conduction disease. Upper-limb malformations may be unilateral, bilateral/symmetric, or bilateral/asymmetric and can range from triphalangeal or absent thumb(s) to phocomelia. Other upper-limb malformations can include unequal arm length caused by aplasia or hypoplasia of the radius, fusion or anomalous development of the carpal and thenar bones, abnormal forearm pronation and supination, abnormal opposition of the thumb, sloping shoulders, and restriction of shoulder joint movement. An abnormal carpal bone is present in all affected individuals and may be the only evidence of disease. A congenital heart malformation is present in 75% of individuals with HOS and most commonly involves the septum. Atrial septal defect and ventricular septal defect can vary in number, size, and location. Complex congenital heart malformations can also occur in individuals with HOS. Individuals with HOS with or without a congenital heart malformation are at risk for cardiac conduction disease. While individuals may present at birth with sinus bradycardia and first-degree atrioventricular (AV) block, AV block can progress unpredictably to a higher grade including complete heart block with and without atrial fibrillation.

CHD7 disorder encompasses the entire phenotypic spectrum of heterozygous CHD7 pathogenic variants that includes CHARGE syndrome as well as subsets of features that comprise the CHARGE syndrome phenotype. The mnemonic CHARGE syndrome, introduced in the premolecular era, stands for coloboma, heart defect, choanal atresia, retarded growth and development, genital hypoplasia, ear anomalies (including deafness). Following the identification of the genetic cause of CHD7 disorder, the phenotypic spectrum expanded to include cranial nerve anomalies, vestibular defects, cleft lip and/or palate, hypothyroidism, tracheoesophageal anomalies, brain anomalies, seizures, and renal anomalies. Life expectancy highly depends on the severity of manifestations; mortality can be high in the first few years when severe birth defects (particularly complex heart defects) are present and often complicated by airway and feeding issues. In childhood, adolescence, and adulthood, decreased life expectancy is likely related to a combination of residual heart defects, infections, aspiration or choking, respiratory issues including obstructive and central apnea, and possibly seizures. Despite these complications, the life expectancy for many individuals can be normal.

Recombinant chromosome 8 syndrome (Rec8 syndrome) is a chromosomal disorder found among individuals of Hispanic descent with ancestry from the San Luis Valley of southern Colorado and northern New Mexico. Affected individuals typically have impaired intellectual development, congenital heart defects, seizures, a characteristic facial appearance with hypertelorism, thin upper lip, anteverted nares, wide face, and abnormal hair whorl, and other manifestations (Sujansky et al., 1993, summary by Graw et al., 2000).

The more common form of transposition of the great arteries, dextro-looped TGA, consists of complete inversion of the great vessels, so that the aorta incorrectly arises from the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery incorrectly arises from the left ventricle. (In the less common type of TGA, levo-looped TGA, the ventricles are inverted instead) (Goldmuntz et al., 2002). This creates completely separate pulmonary and systemic circulatory systems, an arrangement that is incompatible with life. Patients with TGA often have atrial and/or ventricular septal defects or other types of shunting that allow some mixing between the circulations in order to support life minimally, but surgical intervention is always required. For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of dextro-looped transposition of the great arteries, see 608808.

A rare disorder characterised by tetralogy of Fallot, minor facial anomalies, and severe intellectual deficiency and growth delay. Dysmorphic features include large, protruding, abnormally modelled ears and broad nasal root. Microcephaly and syndactyly of second and third toes have also been recorded. All patients have severe intellectual deficiency. The condition is transmitted as an autosomal recessive trait.

Heterotaxy Heterotaxy ('heter' meaning 'other' and 'taxy' meaning 'arrangement'), or situs ambiguus, is a developmental condition characterized by randomization of the placement of visceral organs, including the heart, lungs, liver, spleen, and stomach. The organs are oriented randomly with respect to the left-right axis and with respect to one another (Srivastava, 1997). Heterotaxy is a clinically and genetically heterogeneous disorder. Multiple Types of Congenital Heart Defects Congenital heart defects (CHTD) are among the most common congenital defects, occurring with an incidence of 8/1,000 live births. The etiology of CHTD is complex, with contributions from environmental exposure, chromosomal abnormalities, and gene defects. Some patients with CHTD also have cardiac arrhythmias, which may be due to the anatomic defect itself or to surgical interventions (summary by van de Meerakker et al., 2011). Reviews Obler et al. (2008) reviewed published cases of double-outlet right ventricle and discussed etiology and associations. Genetic Heterogeneity of Visceral Heterotaxy See also HTX2 (605376), caused by mutation in the CFC1 gene (605194) on chromosome 2q21; HTX3 (606325), which maps to chromosome 6q21; HTX4 (613751), caused by mutation in the ACVR2B gene (602730) on chromosome 3p22; HTX5 (270100), caused by mutation in the NODAL gene (601265) on chromosome 10q22; HTX6 (614779), caused by mutation in the CCDC11 gene (614759) on chromosome 18q21; HTX7 (616749), caused by mutation in the MMP21 gene (608416) on chromosome 10q26; HTX8 (617205), caused by mutation in the PKD1L1 gene (609721) on chromosome 7p12; HTX9 (618948), caused by mutation in the MNS1 gene (610766) on chromosome 15q21; HTX10 (619607), caused by mutation in the CFAP52 gene (609804) on chromosome 17p13; HTX11 (619608), caused by mutation in the CFAP45 gene (605152) on chromosome 1q23; and HTX12 (619702), caused by mutation in the CIROP gene (619703) on chromosome 14q11. Genetic Heterogeneity of Multiple Types of Congenital Heart Defects An X-linked form of CHTD, CHTD1, is caused by mutation in the ZIC3 gene on chromosome Xq26. CHTD2 (614980) is caused by mutation in the TAB2 gene (605101) on chromosome 6q25. A form of nonsyndromic congenital heart defects associated with cardiac rhythm and conduction disturbances (CHTD3; 614954) has been mapped to chromosome 9q31. CHTD4 (615779) is caused by mutation in the NR2F2 gene (107773) on chromosome 15q26. CHTD5 (617912) is caused by mutation in the GATA5 gene (611496) on chromosome 20q13. CHTD6 (613854) is caused by mutation in the GDF1 gene (602880) on chromosome 19p13. CHTD7 (618780) is caused by mutation in the FLT4 gene (136352) on chromosome 5q35. CHTD8 (619657) is caused by mutation in the SMAD2 gene (601366) on chromosome 18q21. CHTD9 (620294) is caused by mutation in the PLXND1 gene (604282) on chromosome 3q22.

Oculofaciocardiodental (OFCD) syndrome is a condition that affects the development of the eyes (oculo-), facial features (facio-), heart (cardio-) and teeth (dental). This condition occurs only in females.\n\nThe eye abnormalities associated with OFCD syndrome can affect one or both eyes. Many people with this condition are born with eyeballs that are abnormally small (microphthalmia). Other eye problems can include clouding of the lens (cataract) and a higher risk of glaucoma, an eye disease that increases the pressure in the eye. These abnormalities can lead to vision loss or blindness.\n\nPeople with OFCD syndrome often have a long, narrow face with distinctive facial features, including deep-set eyes and a broad nasal tip that is divided by a cleft. Some affected people have an opening in the roof of the mouth called a cleft palate.\n\nHeart defects are another common feature of OFCD syndrome. Babies with this condition may be born with a hole between two chambers of the heart (an atrial or ventricular septal defect) or a leak in one of the valves that controls blood flow through the heart (mitral valve prolapse).\n\nTeeth with very large roots (radiculomegaly) are characteristic of OFCD syndrome. Additional dental abnormalities can include delayed loss of primary (baby) teeth, missing or abnormally small teeth, misaligned teeth, and defective tooth enamel.

CHIME syndrome, also known as Zunich neuroectodermal syndrome, is an extremely rare autosomal recessive multisystem disorder clinically characterized by colobomas, congenital heart defects, migratory ichthyosiform dermatosis, mental retardation, and ear anomalies (CHIME). Other clinical features include distinctive facial features, abnormal growth, genitourinary abnormalities, seizures, and feeding difficulties (summary by Ng et al., 2012). The disorder is caused by a defect in glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) biosynthesis. For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of GPI biosynthesis defects, see GPIBD1 (610293).

The primary characteristics of the Frank-ter Haar syndrome (FTHS) are brachycephaly, wide fontanels, prominent forehead, hypertelorism, prominent eyes, macrocornea with or without glaucoma, full cheeks, small chin, bowing of the long bones, and flexion deformity of the fingers. Protruding, simple ears and prominent coccyx are also regarded as important diagnostic signs (summary by Maas et al., 2004). Borrone syndrome was described as a severe progressive multisystem disorder with features overlapping those of FTHS, including thick skin, acne conglobata, osteolysis, gingival hypertrophy, brachydactyly, camptodactyly, and mitral valve prolapse. Although it was initially thought to be a distinct phenotype, mutations in the FTHS-associated gene SH3PXD2B have been identified in patients diagnosed with Borrone syndrome. The earlier differential description was attributed to phenotypic variability as well as to differences in the ages at which patients were examined (Wilson et al., 2014).

A rare multiple congenital anomalies/dysmorphic syndrome with characteristics of male, 46,XY gonadal dysgenesis, cleft palate, micrognathia, conotruncal heart defects and unspecific skeletal, brain and kidney anomalies.

A group of congenital cardiac outflow tract anomalies that include such defects as tetralogy of Fallot, pulmonary atresia with ventricular septal defect, double-outlet right ventricle (DORV), double-outlet left ventricle, truncus arteriosus and transposition of the great arteries (TGA), among others. This group of defects is frequently found in patients with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome . A deletion of chromosome 22q11.2 has equally been associated in a subset of patients with various types of isolated non-syndromic conotruncal heart malformations (with the exception of DORV and TGA where this is very uncommon).

Multiple types of congenital heart defects are associated with mutation in the GDF1 gene, including tetralogy of fallot (TOF), transposition of the great arteries (TGA), double-outlet right ventricle (DORV), total anomalous pulmonary venous return (TAPVR), pulmonary stenosis or atresia, atrioventricular canal, ventricular septal defect (VSD), and hypoplastic left or right ventricle (Jin et al., 2017). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of multiple types of congenital heart defects, see 306955.

Heterotaxy ('heter' meaning 'other' and 'taxy' meaning 'arrangement'), or situs ambiguus, is a developmental condition characterized by randomization of the placement of visceral organs, including the heart, lungs, liver, spleen, and stomach. The organs are oriented randomly with respect to the left-right axis and with respect to one another (Srivastava, 1997). Heterotaxy is a clinically and genetically heterogeneous disorder. For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of visceral heterotaxy, see HTX1 (306955).

CILD20 is an autosomal recessive ciliopathy characterized by infantile onset of chronic sinopulmonary infections resulting from immotile cilia and defective clearance. Patients may also have situs inversus or cardiac anomalies. Electron microscopy of respiratory epithelial cells shows absence of the outer dynein arms. Unlike other forms of CILD, patients with CILD20 do not appear to be infertile. For a phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of primary ciliary dyskinesia, see 244400.

Visceral heterotaxy-6 (HTX6) is characterized by dextrocardia with or without accompanying complex cardiovascular defects, as well as variable manifestations of visceral heterotaxy, including situs inversus totalis (Perles et al., 2012).

Zellweger syndrome (ZS) is an autosomal recessive multiple congenital anomaly syndrome resulting from disordered peroxisome biogenesis. Affected children present in the newborn period with profound hypotonia, seizures, and inability to feed. Characteristic craniofacial anomalies, eye abnormalities, neuronal migration defects, hepatomegaly, and chondrodysplasia punctata are present. Children with this condition do not show any significant development and usually die in the first year of life (summary by Steinberg et al., 2006). For a complete phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of Zellweger syndrome, see 214100. Individuals with PBDs of complementation group 14 (CG14, equivalent to CGJ) have mutations in the PEX19 gene. For information on the history of PBD complementation groups, see 214100.

An autosomal dominant form of bicuspid aortic valve caused by mutation(s) in the NOTCH1 gene, encoding neurogenic locus notch homolog protein 1.

Yuan-Harel-Lupski syndrome (YUHAL) is a complex neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by global developmental delay and early-onset peripheral neuropathy. The disorder comprises features of both demyelinating Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 1A (CMT1A; 118220), which results from duplication of the PMP22 gene on 17p12, and Potocki-Lupski syndrome (PTLS; 610883), which results from duplication of a slightly proximal region on 17p11.2 that includes the RAI1 gene. These 2 loci are about 2.5 Mb apart. The resultant YUHAL phenotype may be more severe in comparison to the individual contributions of each gene, with particularly early onset of peripheral neuropathy and features of both central and peripheral nervous system involvement (summary by Yuan et al., 2015).

Autosomal visceral heterotaxy-8 (HTX8) is an autosomal recessive developmental disorder characterized by visceral situs inversus associated with complex congenital heart malformations caused by defects in the normal left-right asymmetric positioning of internal organs (summary by Vetrini et al., 2016). For a discussion of the genetic heterogeneity of visceral heterotaxy, see HTX1 (306955).

Ritscher-Schinzel syndrome (RSS) is a clinically recognizable condition that includes the cardinal findings of craniofacial features, cerebellar defects, and cardiovascular malformations resulting in the alternate diagnostic name of 3C syndrome. Dysmorphic facial features may include brachycephaly, hypotonic face with protruding tongue, flat appearance of the face on profile view, short midface, widely spaced eyes, downslanted palpebral fissures, low-set ears with overfolding of the upper helix, smooth or short philtrum, and high or cleft palate. Affected individuals also typically have a characteristic metacarpal phalangeal profile showing a consistent wavy pattern on hand radiographs. RSS is associated with variable degrees of developmental delay and intellectual disability. Eye anomalies and hypercholesterolemia may be variably present.

CAFDADD is a multisystemic developmental disorder with variable cardiac and digital anomalies and facial dysmorphism. Some patients may have seizures and ocular/aural abnormalities (Tokita et al., 2018).

Vertebral anomalies and variable endocrine and T-cell dysfunction is a syndrome characterized by an overlapping spectrum of features. Skeletal malformations primarily involve the vertebrae, and endocrine abnormalities involving parathyroid hormone (PTH; 168450), growth hormone (GH1; 139250), and the thyroid gland have been reported. T-cell abnormalities have been observed, with some patients showing thymus gland aplasia or hypoplasia. Patients have mild craniofacial dysmorphism, and some show developmental delay or behavioral problems. Cardiac defects may be present (Liu et al., 2018).

Primary ciliary dyskinesia-39 (CILD39) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by chronic sinopulmonary infections beginning soon after birth and laterality defects in about 50% of patients. Although patient nasal ciliary samples have normal structure, detailed studies may show ciliary kinetic defects in some patients (summary by Bonnefoy et al., 2018). For a phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of primary ciliary dyskinesia, see 244400.

IDDCDF is an autosomal recessive syndromic neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by globally impaired development with intellectual disability and speech delay, congenital cardiac malformations, and dysmorphic facial features. Additional features, such as distal skeletal anomalies, may also be observed (Stephen et al., 2018).

X-linked holoprosencephaly-13 (HPE13) is a neurologic disorder characterized by midline developmental defects that mainly affect the brain and craniofacial structure. The severity and manifestations are variable: some patients may have full alobar HPE with cyclopia, whereas others have semilobar HPE or septooptic dysplasia. Dysmorphic features include microcephaly, hypotelorism, low-set ears, micrognathia, and cleft lip/palate. Patients with a more severe phenotype may die in the newborn period, whereas those with a less severe phenotype show global developmental delay. Additional variable features include congenital heart defects and vertebral anomalies. Phenotypic variability may be related to the type of mutation, X-inactivation status, and possible incomplete penetrance. The STAG2 protein is part of the multiprotein cohesin complex involved in chromatid cohesion during DNA replication and transcriptional regulation; HPE13 can thus be classified as a 'cohesinopathy' (summary by Kruszka et al., 2019). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of holoprosencephaly, see HPE1 (236100).

Vertebral, cardiac, renal, and limb defects syndrome-3 (VCRL3) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by severe cardiac and renal anomalies that are lethal in infancy, including hypoplastic or absent left ventricle, transposition of the great arteries, absent pulmonary trunk, and hypoplastic or absent kidneys. Patients also exhibit vertebral segmentation defects and shortening of the proximal long bones or micromelia (Szot et al., 2020). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of VCRL, see VCRL1 (617660).

X-linked multiple congenital anomalies-neurodevelopmental syndrome (MCAND) is an X-linked recessive congenital multisystemic disorder characterized by poor growth, global developmental delay with impaired intellectual development, and variable abnormalities of the cardiac, skeletal, and genitourinary systems. Most affected individuals also have hypotonia and dysmorphic craniofacial features. Brain imaging typically shows enlarged ventricles and thin corpus callosum; some have microcephaly, whereas others have hydrocephalus. The severity of the disorder is highly variable, ranging from death in early infancy to survival into the second or third decade. Pathogenetically, the disorder results from disrupted gene expression and signaling during embryogenesis, thus affecting multiple systems (summary by Tripolszki et al., 2021 and Beck et al., 2021). Beck et al. (2021) referred to the disorder as LINKED syndrome (LINKage-specific deubiquitylation deficiency-induced Embryonic Defects).

VISS syndrome is a generalized connective tissue disorder characterized by early-onset thoracic aortic aneurysm and other connective tissue findings, such as aneurysm and tortuosity of other arteries, joint hypermobility, skin laxity, and hernias, as well as craniofacial dysmorphic features, structural cardiac defects, skeletal anomalies, and motor developmental delay (Van Gucht et al., 2021). Immune dysregulation has been observed in some patients (Ziegler et al., 2021).

Neurodevelopmental disorder with hypotonia and dysmorphic facies (NEDHYDF) is characterized by global developmental delay and hypotonia apparent from birth. Affected individuals have variably impaired intellectual development, often with speech delay and delayed walking. Seizures are generally not observed, although some patients may have single seizures or late-onset epilepsy. Most patients have prominent dysmorphic facial features. Additional features may include congenital cardiac defects (without arrhythmia), nonspecific renal anomalies, joint contractures or joint hyperextensibility, dry skin, and cryptorchidism. There is significant phenotypic variability in both the neurologic and extraneurologic manifestations (summary by Tan et al., 2022).

Multiple types of congenital heart defects-8 (CHTD8) is characterized by cardiac septal defects, double-outlet right ventricle, unbalanced complete atrioventricular canal, and valvular anomalies, as well as vascular anomalies including dextroposition of the great arteries, anomalous pulmonary venous return, and superior vena cava to left atrium defect. Patients may also exhibit laterality defects, including dextrocardia, atrial isomerism, dextrogastria, left-sided gallbladder, and intestinal malrotation (Zaidi et al., 2013; Granadillo et al., 2018).

Visceral heterotaxy-12 (HTX12) is an embryonic developmental disorder characterized by defects in the asymmetric positioning of visceral organs across the left-right axis, known as laterality defects. The phenotype is highly variable, ranging from complete organ reversal (situs inversus totalis) to selective misarrangement of organs (situs ambiguus) such as the liver, spleen, and pancreas. The disorder is often associated with dextrocardia or variable complex congenital heart defects. Early death may occur in the most severe cases (summary by Szenker-Ravi et al., 2022). For a discussion of the genetic heterogeneity of visceral heterotaxy, see HTX1 (306955).

Holoprosencephaly-14 (HPE14) is an autosomal recessive condition characterized by severe developmental delay secondary to brain malformations within the holoprosencephaly spectrum (Drissi et al., 2022). For general phenotypic information and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of holoprosencephaly, see HPE1 (236100).

Multiple types of congenital heart defects-9 (CHTD9) is characterized by common arterial trunk (truncus arteriosus communis) in most patients, associated with other cardiac defects, including tetralogy of Fallot, interrupted aortic arch, right aortic arch, ventricular hypoplasia, and hypoplastic left heart, as well as other vascular and valvular anomalies (Ta-Shma et al., 2013; Guimier et al., 2023). For a general phenotypic description and discussion of genetic heterogeneity of multiple types of congenital heart defects, see CHTD1 (see 306955).

Primary ciliary dyskinesia-52 (CILD52) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by laterality defects and mild respiratory symptoms due to subtle ciliary beating defects (summary by Leslie et al., 2022). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of primary ciliary dyskinesia, see CILD1 (244400).