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Cortical dysplasia

MedGen UID:
98129
Concept ID:
C0431380
Congenital Abnormality
Synonyms: Cerebral Cortical Dysplasia; Cerebral Cortical Dysplasias; Cortical Dysplasia; Cortical Dysplasia, Cerebral; Cortical Dysplasias; Dysplasia, Cerebral Cortical; Dysplasia, Cortical
SNOMED CT: Dysplasia of cerebral cortex (253153000); Cortical dysplasia (253153000)
 
HPO: HP:0002539
Monarch Initiative: MONDO:0017094
Orphanet: ORPHA268950

Definition

The presence of developmental dysplasia of the cerebral cortex. [from HPO]

Conditions with this feature

Bifunctional peroxisomal enzyme deficiency
MedGen UID:
137982
Concept ID:
C0342870
Pathologic Function
D-bifunctional protein deficiency is a disorder of peroxisomal fatty acid beta-oxidation. See also peroxisomal acyl-CoA oxidase deficiency (264470), caused by mutation in the ACOX1 gene (609751) on chromosome 17q25. The clinical manifestations of these 2 deficiencies are similar to those of disorders of peroxisomal assembly, including X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy (ALD; 300100), Zellweger cerebrohepatorenal syndrome (see 214100) and neonatal adrenoleukodystrophy (NALD; see 601539) (Watkins et al., 1995). DBP deficiency has been classified into 3 subtypes depending upon the deficient enzyme activity. Type I is a deficiency of both 2-enoyl-CoA hydratase and 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase; type II is a deficiency of hydratase activity alone; and type III is a deficiency of dehydrogenase activity alone. Virtually all patients with types I, II, and III have a severe phenotype characterized by infantile-onset of hypotonia, seizures, and abnormal facial features, and most die before age 2 years. McMillan et al. (2012) proposed a type IV deficiency on the basis of less severe features; these patients have a phenotype reminiscent of Perrault syndrome (PRLTS1; 233400). Pierce et al. (2010) noted that Perrault syndrome and DBP deficiency overlap clinically and suggested that DBP deficiency may be underdiagnosed.
Encephalocraniocutaneous lipomatosis
MedGen UID:
140807
Concept ID:
C0406612
Congenital Abnormality
Encephalocraniocutaneous lipomatosis (ECCL) comprises a spectrum of predominantly congenital anomalies. In its typical form, ECCL is characterized by congenital anomalies of the skin (nevus psiloliparus, patchy or streaky non-scarring alopecia, subcutaneous lipomas in the frontotemporal region, focal skin aplasia or hypoplasia on the scalp, and/or small nodular skin tags on the eyelids or between the outer canthus and tragus), eye (choristoma), and brain (in particular intracranial and spinal lipomas). To a much lesser degree, the bones and the heart can be affected. About 40% of affected individuals have bilateral abnormalities of the skin or the eyes. About one third of affected individuals have normal cognitive development, another one third have mild developmental delay (DD) or intellectual disability (ID), and the final one third have severe or unspecified DD/ID. Half of individuals have seizures. Affected individuals are at an increased (i.e., above the general population) risk of developing brain tumors, particularly low-grade gliomas such as pilocytic astrocytomas. There is evidence that oculoectodermal syndrome (OES) may constitute a clinical spectrum with ECCL, with OES on the mild end and ECCL on the more severe end of the spectrum.
CEDNIK syndrome
MedGen UID:
332113
Concept ID:
C1836033
Disease or Syndrome
Cerebral dysgenesis, neuropathy, ichthyosis, and keratoderma syndrome (CEDNIK) refers to a unique constellation of clinical manifestations including global developmental delay with hypotonia, roving eye movements or nystagmus, poor motor skills, and impaired intellectual development with speech delay. More variable features include microcephaly, feeding difficulties, seizures, ocular anomalies, hearing loss, and nonspecific dysmorphic facial features. Palmoplantar keratoderma and ichthyosis or neuropathy develop in some patients. Brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) shows varying degrees of cerebral dysgenesis, including absence of the corpus callosum and cortical dysplasia, as well as hypomyelination, white matter loss, and white matter signal anomalies suggestive of a leukodystrophy. Some patients may show developmental regression; many die in childhood (Fuchs-Telem et al., 2011; Mah-Som et al., 2021). With more patients being reported, several authors (Diggle et al., 2017; Llaci et al., 2019; Mah-Som et al., 2021) have observed that the dermatologic features and peripheral neuropathy show reduced penetrance and are more variable manifestations of this disorder, as they are not observed in all patients with biallelic SNAP29 mutations.
Microcephaly 5, primary, autosomal recessive
MedGen UID:
373344
Concept ID:
C1837501
Disease or Syndrome
ASPM primary microcephaly (ASPM-MCPH) is characterized by: (1) significant microcephaly (below -3 SD for age) usually present at birth and always present before age one year and (2) the absence of other congenital anomalies. While developmental milestones are usually normal in young children, older children have variable levels of intellectual disability. Neurologic examination is usually normal except for mild spasticity. Seizures are not common.
X-linked intellectual disability Cabezas type
MedGen UID:
337334
Concept ID:
C1845861
Disease or Syndrome
The Cabezas type of X-linked syndromic intellectual developmental disorder is characterized primarily by short stature, hypogonadism, and abnormal gait, with other more variable features such as speech delay, prominent lower lip, and tremor (Cabezas et al., 2000).
Isolated focal cortical dysplasia type II
MedGen UID:
339510
Concept ID:
C1846385
Congenital Abnormality
Focal cortical dysplasia type II (FCORD2), or focal cortical dysplasia of Taylor (FCDT), is a cerebral developmental malformation that results in a clinical phenotype of intractable epilepsy, usually requiring surgery. FCORD2 has been classified histologically into 2 subtypes: a type without balloon cells, known as type IIA, and a type with balloon cells, known as type IIB (Palmini et al., 2004). Affected individuals have refractory seizures, usually with onset in early childhood, and may have persistent intellectual disability. Most patients require neurosurgical resection of affected brain tissue to ameliorate seizure frequency and severity (summary by Moller et al., 2016).
Chromosome 2p16.1-p15 deletion syndrome
MedGen UID:
390902
Concept ID:
C2675875
Disease or Syndrome
Chromosome 2p16.1-p15 deletion syndrome is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by delayed psychomotor development, intellectual disability, and variable but distinctive dysmorphic features, including microcephaly, bitemporal narrowing, smooth and long philtrum, hypertelorism, downslanting palpebral fissures, broad nasal root, thin upper lip, and high palate. Many patients have behavioral disorders, including autistic features, as well as structural brain abnormalities, such as pachygyria or hypoplastic corpus callosum. Those with deletions including the BCL11A gene (606557) also have persistence of fetal hemoglobin (HbF), which is asymptomatic and does not affected hematologic parameters or susceptibility to infection (summary by Funnell et al., 2015). Point mutation in the BCL11A gene causes intellectual developmental disorder with persistence of fetal hemoglobin (617101), which shows overlapping features. See also fetal hemoglobin quantitative trait locus-5 (HBFQTL5; 142335).
Cortical dysplasia-focal epilepsy syndrome
MedGen UID:
413258
Concept ID:
C2750246
Disease or Syndrome
Pitt-Hopkins-like syndrome-1 (PTHSL1) is an autosomal recessive neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by delayed psychomotor development, intellectual disability, severe speech impairment or regression, and behavioral abnormalities. Most patients have onset of seizures within the first years of life. Some patients may have cortical dysplasia on brain imaging (summary by Smogavec et al., 2016).
Complex cortical dysplasia with other brain malformations 1
MedGen UID:
814727
Concept ID:
C3808397
Disease or Syndrome
Complex cortical dysplasia with other brain malformations (CDCBM) is a disorder of aberrant neuronal migration and disturbed axonal guidance. Affected individuals have mild to severe mental retardation, strabismus, axial hypotonia, and spasticity. Brain imaging shows variable malformations of cortical development, including polymicrogyria, gyral disorganization, and fusion of the basal ganglia, as well as thin corpus callosum, hypoplastic brainstem, and dysplastic cerebellar vermis. Extraocular muscles are not involved (summary by Poirier et al., 2010). Genetic Heterogeneity of Complex Cortical Dysplasia with Other Brain Malformations See also CDCBM2 (615282), caused by mutation in the KIF5C gene (604593) on chromosome 2q23; CDCBM3 (615411), caused by mutation in the KIF2A gene (602591) on chromosome 5q12; CDCBM4 (615412), caused by mutation in the TUBG1 gene (191135) on chromosome 17q21; CDCBM5 (615763), caused by mutation in the TUBB2A gene (615101) on chromosome 6p25; CDCBM6 (615771), caused by mutation in the TUBB gene (191130) on chromosome 6p21; CDCBM7 (610031), caused by mutation in the TUBB2B gene (612850) on chromosome 6p25; CDCBM9 (618174), caused by mutation in the CTNNA2 gene (114025) on chromosome 2p12; CDCBM10 (618677), caused by mutation in the APC2 gene (612034) on chromosome 19p13; CDCBM11 (620156), caused by mutation in the KIF26A gene (613231) on chromosome 14q32; CDCBM12 (620316), caused by mutation in the CAMSAP1 gene (613774) on chromosome 9q34; CDCBM13 (614563), caused by mutation in the DYNC1H1 gene (600112) on chromosome 14q32; CDCBM14A (606854) and CDCBM14B (615752), caused by mutation in the ADGRG1 gene (604110) on chromosome 16q21; and CDCBM15 (618737), caused by mutation in the TUBGCP2 gene (617817) on chromosome 10q26. The designation CDCBM8 was previously used to represent a phenotype caused by mutation in the TUBA8 gene (see 605742.0001) on chromosome 22q11; the patients with this phenotype were subsequently found to have a homozygous mutation in the SNAP29 gene (604202.0002), also on chromosome 22q11, that may have been responsible for the disorder. The same mutation in SNAP29 causes a similar disorder, CEDNIK syndrome (609528). See also lissencephaly (e.g., LIS1, 607432), which shows overlapping features and may result from mutation in tubulin genes.
Complex cortical dysplasia with other brain malformations 2
MedGen UID:
815343
Concept ID:
C3809013
Disease or Syndrome
Any complex cortical dysplasia with other brain malformations in which the cause of the disease is a mutation in the KIF5C gene.
Muscular dystrophy-dystroglycanopathy (congenital with brain and eye anomalies), type A13
MedGen UID:
815372
Concept ID:
C3809042
Disease or Syndrome
Congenital muscular dystrophy-dystroglycanopathy with brain and eye anomalies (type A) is a autosomal recessive disorder associated with severe neurologic defects and resulting in early infantile death. The phenotype includes the alternative clinical designations Walker-Warburg syndrome (WWS) and muscle-eye-brain disease (MEB). The disorder represents the most severe end of a phenotypic spectrum of similar disorders resulting from defective glycosylation of alpha-dystroglycan (DAG1; 128239), collectively known as dystroglycanopathies (summary by Buysse et al., 2013). For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of muscular dystrophy-dystroglycanopathy type A, see MDDGA1 (236670).
Complex cortical dysplasia with other brain malformations 3
MedGen UID:
815744
Concept ID:
C3809414
Disease or Syndrome
Any complex cortical dysplasia with other brain malformations in which the cause of the disease is a mutation in the KIF2A gene.
Congenital microcephaly - severe encephalopathy - progressive cerebral atrophy syndrome
MedGen UID:
816301
Concept ID:
C3809971
Disease or Syndrome
Asparagine synthetase deficiency (ASD) mainly presents as a triad of congenital microcephaly, severe developmental delay, and axial hypotonia followed by spastic quadriplegia. Low cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) asparagine level can help the clinician in differentiating this disorder from others. In most cases age of onset of apnea, excessive irritability, and seizures is soon after birth. Affected individuals typically do not acquire any developmental milestones. Spastic quadriplegia can lead to severe contractures of the limbs and neurogenic scoliosis. Feeding difficulties (gastroesophageal reflux disease, frequent vomiting, swallowing dysfunction, and gastroesophageal incoordination) are a significant problem in most affected individuals. A majority have cortical blindness. MRI findings are nonspecific but may include generalized atrophy and simplified gyral pattern.
Complex cortical dysplasia with other brain malformations 5
MedGen UID:
816737
Concept ID:
C3810407
Disease or Syndrome
An autosomal dominant condition caused by mutation(s) in the TUBB2A gene, encoding tubulin beta-2A chain. It is characterized by cortical dysplasia and is associated with impaired intellectual development, hypotonia, global developmental delay, cortical dysplasia, and dysmorphic corpus callosum.
Complex cortical dysplasia with other brain malformations 6
MedGen UID:
862720
Concept ID:
C4014283
Disease or Syndrome
Any complex cortical dysplasia with other brain malformations in which the cause of the disease is a mutation in the TUBB gene.
Periventricular nodular heterotopia 7
MedGen UID:
934636
Concept ID:
C4310669
Disease or Syndrome
Periventricular nodular heterotopia-7 (PVNH7) is a neurologic disorder characterized by abnormal neuronal migration during brain development resulting in delayed psychomotor development and intellectual disability; some patients develop seizures. Other features include cleft palate and 2-3 toe syndactyly (summary by Broix et al., 2016). For a phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of periventricular heterotopia, see 300049.
SIN3A-related intellectual disability syndrome due to a point mutation
MedGen UID:
934771
Concept ID:
C4310804
Disease or Syndrome
Witteveen-Kolk syndrome (WITKOS) is an autosomal dominant disorder with characteristic distinctive facial features, microcephaly, short stature, and mildly impaired intellectual development with delayed cognitive and motor development and subtle anomalies on MRI-brain imaging (summary by Balasubramanian et al., 2021).
Gabriele de Vries syndrome
MedGen UID:
1375401
Concept ID:
C4479652
Disease or Syndrome
Gabriele-de Vries syndrome is characterized by mild-to-profound developmental delay / intellectual disability (DD/ID) in all affected individuals and a wide spectrum of functional and morphologic abnormalities. Intrauterine growth restriction or low birth weight and feeding difficulties are common. Congenital brain, eye, heart, kidney, genital, and/or skeletal system anomalies have also been reported. About half of affected individuals have neurologic manifestations, including hypotonia and gait abnormalities. Behavioral issues can include attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, anxiety, autism or autistic behavior, and schizoaffective disorder.
Adams-Oliver syndrome 1
MedGen UID:
1635567
Concept ID:
C4551482
Disease or Syndrome
Adams-Oliver syndrome (AOS) is characterized by aplasia cutis congenita (ACC) of the scalp and terminal transverse limb defects (TTLD). ACC lesions usually occur in the midline of the parietal or occipital regions, but can also occur on the abdomen or limbs. At birth, an ACC lesion may already have the appearance of a healed scar. ACC lesions less than 5 cm often involve only the skin and almost always heal over a period of months; larger lesions are more likely to involve the skull and possibly the dura, and are at greater risk for complications, which can include infection, hemorrhage, or thrombosis, and can result in death. The limb defects range from mild (unilateral or bilateral short distal phalanges) to severe (complete absence of all toes or fingers, feet or hands, or more, often resembling an amputation). The lower extremities are almost always more severely affected than the upper extremities. Additional major features frequently include cardiovascular malformations/dysfunction (23%), brain anomalies, and less frequently renal, liver, and eye anomalies.
Brain small vessel disease 1 with or without ocular anomalies
MedGen UID:
1647320
Concept ID:
C4551998
Disease or Syndrome
The spectrum of COL4A1-related disorders includes: small-vessel brain disease of varying severity including porencephaly, variably associated with eye defects (retinal arterial tortuosity, Axenfeld-Rieger anomaly, cataract) and systemic findings (kidney involvement, muscle cramps, cerebral aneurysms, Raynaud phenomenon, cardiac arrhythmia, and hemolytic anemia). On imaging studies, small-vessel brain disease is manifest as diffuse periventricular leukoencephalopathy, lacunar infarcts, microhemorrhage, dilated perivascular spaces, and deep intracerebral hemorrhages. Clinically, small-vessel brain disease manifests as infantile hemiparesis, seizures, single or recurrent hemorrhagic stroke, ischemic stroke, and isolated migraine with aura. Porencephaly (fluid-filled cavities in the brain detected by CT or MRI) is typically manifest as infantile hemiparesis, seizures, and intellectual disability; however, on occasion it can be an incidental finding. HANAC (hereditary angiopathy with nephropathy, aneurysms, and muscle cramps) syndrome usually associates asymptomatic small-vessel brain disease, cerebral large vessel involvement (i.e., aneurysms), and systemic findings involving the kidney, muscle, and small vessels of the eye. Two additional phenotypes include isolated retinal artery tortuosity and nonsyndromic autosomal dominant congenital cataract.
Polymicrogyria with or without vascular-type Ehlers-Danlos syndrome
MedGen UID:
1675672
Concept ID:
C5193040
Disease or Syndrome
Polymicrogyria with or without vascular-type Ehlers-Danlos syndrome is an autosomal recessive disorder with a highly variable phenotype. Although all patients have polymicrogyria and other variable structural brain anomalies on imaging, only some show developmental delay and/or seizures. Similarly, only some patients have connective tissue defects that particularly affect the vascular system and can result in early death (summary by Vandervore et al., 2017).
Neurodevelopmental disorder with nonspecific brain abnormalities and with or without seizures
MedGen UID:
1684757
Concept ID:
C5231470
Disease or Syndrome
Neurodevelopmental disorder with nonspecific brain abnormalities is a highly variable syndrome characterized by impaired intellectual development and behavioral abnormalities associated with structural changes on brain imaging. Some patients have seizures, hypotonia, and scoliosis/kyphosis. Cognitive function ranges from severely impaired to the ability to attend schools with special assistance (summary by Fischer-Zirnsak et al., 2019).
Delpire-McNeill syndrome
MedGen UID:
1725056
Concept ID:
C5436771
Disease or Syndrome
Delpire-McNeill syndrome (DELMNES) is a neurodevelopmental disorder with highly variable manifestations. Patients present in infancy with global developmental delay, including motor, speech, and impaired intellectual development. The most severely affected patients have hypotonia, inability to hold their head or walk, bilateral sensorineural deafness, and absent language, whereas others have delayed walking and mild to moderate intellectual disability, often with speech delay and autistic features. More variable features may include spasticity or minor involvement of other organ systems, such as hip dislocation or ventricular septal defect (summary by McNeill et al., 2020).
Neurodevelopmental disorder with epilepsy and brain atrophy
MedGen UID:
1823957
Concept ID:
C5774184
Disease or Syndrome
Neurodevelopmental disorder with epilepsy and brain atrophy (NEDEBA) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by early-onset progressive myoclonus epilepsy with ataxia (summary by Bott et al., 2021).

Professional guidelines

PubMed

Guerrini R, Barba C
Expert Rev Neurother 2021 Nov;21(11):1213-1224. Epub 2021 Apr 25 doi: 10.1080/14737175.2021.1915135. PMID: 33834938
Tahta A, Turgut M
Childs Nerv Syst 2020 Dec;36(12):2939-2947. Epub 2020 Aug 6 doi: 10.1007/s00381-020-04851-9. PMID: 32766946
Cornet MC, Sands TT, Cilio MR
Semin Fetal Neonatal Med 2018 Jun;23(3):204-212. Epub 2018 Jan 31 doi: 10.1016/j.siny.2018.01.004. PMID: 29426806

Recent clinical studies

Etiology

Almacellas Barbanoj A, Graham RT, Maffei B, Carpenter JC, Leite M, Hoke J, Hardjo F, Scott-Solache J, Chimonides C, Schorge S, Kullmann DM, Magloire V, Lignani G
Brain 2024 Feb 1;147(2):542-553. doi: 10.1093/brain/awad387. PMID: 38100333Free PMC Article
Urbach H, Kellner E, Kremers N, Blümcke I, Demerath T
Neuroradiology 2022 Mar;64(3):443-452. Epub 2021 Nov 27 doi: 10.1007/s00234-021-02865-x. PMID: 34839379Free PMC Article
Guerrini R, Barba C
Expert Rev Neurother 2021 Nov;21(11):1213-1224. Epub 2021 Apr 25 doi: 10.1080/14737175.2021.1915135. PMID: 33834938
Tahta A, Turgut M
Childs Nerv Syst 2020 Dec;36(12):2939-2947. Epub 2020 Aug 6 doi: 10.1007/s00381-020-04851-9. PMID: 32766946
Baldassari S, Ribierre T, Marsan E, Adle-Biassette H, Ferrand-Sorbets S, Bulteau C, Dorison N, Fohlen M, Polivka M, Weckhuysen S, Dorfmüller G, Chipaux M, Baulac S
Acta Neuropathol 2019 Dec;138(6):885-900. Epub 2019 Aug 23 doi: 10.1007/s00401-019-02061-5. PMID: 31444548Free PMC Article

Diagnosis

Almacellas Barbanoj A, Graham RT, Maffei B, Carpenter JC, Leite M, Hoke J, Hardjo F, Scott-Solache J, Chimonides C, Schorge S, Kullmann DM, Magloire V, Lignani G
Brain 2024 Feb 1;147(2):542-553. doi: 10.1093/brain/awad387. PMID: 38100333Free PMC Article
Guerrini R, Barba C
Expert Rev Neurother 2021 Nov;21(11):1213-1224. Epub 2021 Apr 25 doi: 10.1080/14737175.2021.1915135. PMID: 33834938
Baldassari S, Ribierre T, Marsan E, Adle-Biassette H, Ferrand-Sorbets S, Bulteau C, Dorison N, Fohlen M, Polivka M, Weckhuysen S, Dorfmüller G, Chipaux M, Baulac S
Acta Neuropathol 2019 Dec;138(6):885-900. Epub 2019 Aug 23 doi: 10.1007/s00401-019-02061-5. PMID: 31444548Free PMC Article
Aronica E, Mühlebner A
Handb Clin Neurol 2017;145:193-216. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-802395-2.00015-8. PMID: 28987170
Gaitanis JN, Donahue J
Pediatr Neurol 2013 Aug;49(2):79-87. doi: 10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2012.12.024. PMID: 23859852

Therapy

Lamberink HJ, Otte WM, Blümcke I, Braun KPJ; European Epilepsy Brain Bank writing group; study group; European Reference Network EpiCARE
Lancet Neurol 2020 Sep;19(9):748-757. doi: 10.1016/S1474-4422(20)30220-9. PMID: 32822635
West S, Nevitt SJ, Cotton J, Gandhi S, Weston J, Sudan A, Ramirez R, Newton R
Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2019 Jun 25;6(6):CD010541. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD010541.pub3. PMID: 31237346Free PMC Article
Cornet MC, Sands TT, Cilio MR
Semin Fetal Neonatal Med 2018 Jun;23(3):204-212. Epub 2018 Jan 31 doi: 10.1016/j.siny.2018.01.004. PMID: 29426806
Peñagarikano O, Lázaro MT, Lu XH, Gordon A, Dong H, Lam HA, Peles E, Maidment NT, Murphy NP, Yang XW, Golshani P, Geschwind DH
Sci Transl Med 2015 Jan 21;7(271):271ra8. doi: 10.1126/scitranslmed.3010257. PMID: 25609168Free PMC Article
Guerrini R
Lancet 2006 Feb 11;367(9509):499-524. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68182-8. PMID: 16473127

Prognosis

Balestrini S, Barba C, Thom M, Guerrini R
Pract Neurol 2023 Aug;23(4):293-302. Epub 2023 Feb 23 doi: 10.1136/pn-2022-003404. PMID: 36823117
McGonigal A
J Neurol 2022 Jun;269(6):3363-3371. Epub 2022 Jan 10 doi: 10.1007/s00415-021-10949-0. PMID: 35006387
Sidhu MK, Duncan JS, Sander JW
Curr Opin Neurol 2018 Aug;31(4):371-378. doi: 10.1097/WCO.0000000000000568. PMID: 29782369
Bourdillon P, Devaux B, Job-Chapron AS, Isnard J
Neurophysiol Clin 2018 Feb;48(1):59-64. Epub 2017 Dec 19 doi: 10.1016/j.neucli.2017.11.011. PMID: 29273383
Guerrini R
Lancet 2006 Feb 11;367(9509):499-524. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68182-8. PMID: 16473127

Clinical prediction guides

Balestrini S, Barba C, Thom M, Guerrini R
Pract Neurol 2023 Aug;23(4):293-302. Epub 2023 Feb 23 doi: 10.1136/pn-2022-003404. PMID: 36823117
Choi JJ, Yang E, Soul JS, Jaimes C
Pediatr Radiol 2020 Dec;50(13):1934-1947. Epub 2020 Nov 30 doi: 10.1007/s00247-020-04696-z. PMID: 33252760
Baldassari S, Ribierre T, Marsan E, Adle-Biassette H, Ferrand-Sorbets S, Bulteau C, Dorison N, Fohlen M, Polivka M, Weckhuysen S, Dorfmüller G, Chipaux M, Baulac S
Acta Neuropathol 2019 Dec;138(6):885-900. Epub 2019 Aug 23 doi: 10.1007/s00401-019-02061-5. PMID: 31444548Free PMC Article
Sidhu MK, Duncan JS, Sander JW
Curr Opin Neurol 2018 Aug;31(4):371-378. doi: 10.1097/WCO.0000000000000568. PMID: 29782369
Iffland PH 2nd, Crino PB
Annu Rev Pathol 2017 Jan 24;12:547-571. doi: 10.1146/annurev-pathol-052016-100138. PMID: 28135561

Recent systematic reviews

Jiménez-Murillo D, Castro-Ospina AE, Duque-Muñoz L, Martínez-Vargas JD, Suárez-Revelo JX, Vélez-Arango JM, de la Iglesia-Vayá M
Sensors (Basel) 2023 Aug 10;23(16) doi: 10.3390/s23167072. PMID: 37631608Free PMC Article
Shakhatreh L, Janmohamed M, Baker AA, Willard A, Laing J, Rychkova M, Chen Z, Kwan P, O'Brien TJ, Perucca P
Neurobiol Dis 2022 Nov;174:105863. Epub 2022 Sep 19 doi: 10.1016/j.nbd.2022.105863. PMID: 36165814
West S, Nevitt SJ, Cotton J, Gandhi S, Weston J, Sudan A, Ramirez R, Newton R
Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2019 Jun 25;6(6):CD010541. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD010541.pub3. PMID: 31237346Free PMC Article
West S, Nolan SJ, Cotton J, Gandhi S, Weston J, Sudan A, Ramirez R, Newton R
Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2015 Jul 1;(7):CD010541. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD010541.pub2. PMID: 26130264
Marin-Valencia I, Guerrini R, Gleeson JG
Epilepsia 2014 Jul;55(7):970-8. Epub 2014 May 23 doi: 10.1111/epi.12650. PMID: 24861491Free PMC Article

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