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Distal arthrogryposis

MedGen UID:
120512
Concept ID:
C0265213
Disease or Syndrome
Synonym: Arthrogryposis, distal
SNOMED CT: Distal arthrogryposis (24269006); Distal arthrogryposis syndrome (24269006)
 
Related genes: NALCN, PIEZO2, ECEL1, TPM2, TNNT3, TNNI2, MYH8, MYH3, MYBPC1
 
HPO: HP:0005684
Monarch Initiative: MONDO:0019942
OMIM® Phenotypic series: PS108120
Orphanet: ORPHA97120

Definition

An inherited primary limb malformation disorder characterized by congenital contractures of two or more different body areas and without primary neurologic and/or muscle disease that affects limb function. [from HPO]

Term Hierarchy

Conditions with this feature

Gordon syndrome
MedGen UID:
66314
Concept ID:
C0220666
Disease or Syndrome
DA3, or Gordon syndrome, is distinguished from other distal arthrogryposes by short stature and cleft palate (summary by Bamshad et al., 2009). There are 2 syndromes with features overlapping those of DA3 that are also caused by heterozygous mutation in PIEZO2: distal arthrogryposis type 5 (DA5; 108145) and Marden-Walker syndrome (MWKS; 248700), which are distinguished by the presence of ocular abnormalities and mental retardation, respectively. McMillin et al. (2014) suggested that the 3 disorders may represent variable expressivity of the same condition. For a phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of distal arthrogryposis, see DA1 (108120).
Congenital contractural arachnodactyly
MedGen UID:
67391
Concept ID:
C0220668
Congenital Abnormality
Congenital contractural arachnodactyly (CCA) appears to comprise a broad phenotypic spectrum. Classic CCA is characterized by arachnodactyly; flexion contractures of multiple joints including elbows, knees, hips, ankles, and/or fingers; kyphoscoliosis (usually progressive); a marfanoid habitus (a long and slender build, dolichostenomelia, pectus deformity, muscular hypoplasia, highly arched palate); and abnormal "crumpled" ears. At the mildest end, parents who are diagnosed retrospectively upon evaluation of their more severely affected child may show a lean body build, mild arachnodactyly, mild contractures without impairment, and minor ear abnormalities. At the most severe end is "severe CCA with cardiovascular and/or gastrointestinal anomalies," a rare phenotype in infants with pronounced features of CCA (severe crumpling of the ears, arachnodactyly, contractures, congenital scoliosis, and/or hypotonia) and severe cardiovascular and/or gastrointestinal anomalies. Phenotypic expression can vary within and between families.
Hecht syndrome
MedGen UID:
78540
Concept ID:
C0265226
Disease or Syndrome
The trismus-pseudocamptodactyly syndrome is a distal arthrogryposis characterized by an inability to open the mouth fully (trismus) and pseudocamptodactyly in which wrist dorsiflexion, but not volar flexion, produces involuntary flexion contracture of distal and proximal interphalangeal joints. In these patients, trismus complicates dental care, feeding during infancy, and intubation for anesthesia, and the pseudocamptodactyly impairs manual dexterity, with consequent occupational and social disability (summary by Veugelers et al., 2004).
Arthrogryposis-severe scoliosis syndrome
MedGen UID:
373169
Concept ID:
C1836756
Disease or Syndrome
Distal arthrogryposis type 4 (DA4) is distinguished by the presence of scoliosis (summary by Bamshad et al., 2009). For a phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of distal arthrogryposis, see DA1 (108120).
Carney complex - trismus - pseudocamptodactyly syndrome
MedGen UID:
332400
Concept ID:
C1837245
Disease or Syndrome
Carney complex-trismus-pseudocamptodactyly syndrome is a rare genetic heart-hand syndrome characterized by typical manifestations of the Carney complex (spotty pigmentation of the skin, familial cardiac and cutaneous myxomas and endocrinopathy) associated with trismus and distal arthrogryposis (presenting as involuntary contraction of distal and proximal interphalangeal joints of hands evident only on dorsiflexion of wrist and similar lower-limb contractures producing foot deformities).
Arthrogryposis, distal, type 2E
MedGen UID:
343844
Concept ID:
C1852597
Disease or Syndrome
Noonan syndrome 2
MedGen UID:
344290
Concept ID:
C1854469
Disease or Syndrome
Noonan syndrome (NS) is characterized by characteristic facies, short stature, congenital heart defect, and developmental delay of variable degree. Other findings can include broad or webbed neck, unusual chest shape with superior pectus carinatum and inferior pectus excavatum, cryptorchidism, varied coagulation defects, lymphatic dysplasias, and ocular abnormalities. Although birth length is usually normal, final adult height approaches the lower limit of normal. Congenital heart disease occurs in 50%-80% of individuals. Pulmonary valve stenosis, often with dysplasia, is the most common heart defect and is found in 20%-50% of individuals. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, found in 20%-30% of individuals, may be present at birth or develop in infancy or childhood. Other structural defects include atrial and ventricular septal defects, branch pulmonary artery stenosis, and tetralogy of Fallot. Up to one fourth of affected individuals have mild intellectual disability, and language impairments in general are more common in NS than in the general population.
Distal arthrogryposis type 10
MedGen UID:
349990
Concept ID:
C1861238
Disease or Syndrome
A rare genetic distal arthrogryposis syndrome with characteristics of plantar flexion contractures typically presenting with toe-walking in infancy, variably associated with milder contractures of the hip, elbow, wrist and finger joints. No ocular or neurological abnormalities are associated and serum creatine phosphokinase levels are normal.
Arthrogryposis- oculomotor limitation-electroretinal anomalies syndrome
MedGen UID:
350678
Concept ID:
C1862472
Disease or Syndrome
Distal arthrogryposis type 5 is distinguished from other forms of DA by the presence of ocular abnormalities, typically ptosis, ophthalmoplegia, and/or strabismus, in addition to contractures of the skeletal muscles. Some cases have been reported to have pulmonary hypertension as a result of restrictive lung disease (summary by Bamshad et al., 2009). There are 2 syndromes with features overlapping those of DA5 that are also caused by heterozygous mutation in PIEZO2: distal arthrogryposis type 3 (DA3, or Gordon syndrome; 114300) and Marden-Walker syndrome (MWKS; 248700), which are distinguished by the presence of cleft palate and mental retardation, respectively. McMillin et al. (2014) suggested that the 3 disorders might represent variable expressivity of the same condition. For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of distal arthrogryposis, see DA1A (108120). Genetic Heterogeneity of Distal Arthrogryposis 5 A subtype of DA5 due to mutation in the ECEL1 gene (605896) on chromosome 2q36 has been designated DA5D (615065). See NOMENCLATURE.
Desmosterolosis
MedGen UID:
400801
Concept ID:
C1865596
Disease or Syndrome
Desmosterolosis is a rare autosomal recessive disorder characterized by multiple congenital anomalies and elevated levels of the cholesterol precursor desmosterol in plasma, tissue, and cultured cells (summary by Waterham et al., 2001).
Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, musculocontractural type
MedGen UID:
356497
Concept ID:
C1866294
Disease or Syndrome
Bleeding problems are common in the vascular type of Ehlers-Danlos syndrome and are caused by unpredictable tearing (rupture) of blood vessels and organs. These complications can lead to easy bruising, internal bleeding, a hole in the wall of the intestine (intestinal perforation), or stroke. During pregnancy, women with vascular Ehlers-Danlos syndrome may experience rupture of the uterus. Additional forms of Ehlers-Danlos syndrome that involve rupture of the blood vessels include the kyphoscoliotic, classical, and classical-like types.\n\nOther types of Ehlers-Danlos syndrome have additional signs and symptoms. The cardiac-valvular type causes severe problems with the valves that control the movement of blood through the heart. People with the kyphoscoliotic type experience severe curvature of the spine that worsens over time and can interfere with breathing by restricting lung expansion. A type of Ehlers-Danlos syndrome called brittle cornea syndrome is characterized by thinness of the clear covering of the eye (the cornea) and other eye abnormalities. The spondylodysplastic type features short stature and skeletal abnormalities such as abnormally curved (bowed) limbs. Abnormalities of muscles, including hypotonia and permanently bent joints (contractures), are among the characteristic signs of the musculocontractural and myopathic forms of Ehlers-Danlos syndrome. The periodontal type causes abnormalities of the teeth and gums.\n\nMany people with the Ehlers-Danlos syndromes have soft, velvety skin that is highly stretchy (elastic) and fragile. Affected individuals tend to bruise easily, and some types of the condition also cause abnormal scarring. People with the classical form of Ehlers-Danlos syndrome experience wounds that split open with little bleeding and leave scars that widen over time to create characteristic "cigarette paper" scars. The dermatosparaxis type of the disorder is characterized by loose skin that sags and wrinkles, and extra (redundant) folds of skin may be present.\n\nAn unusually large range of joint movement (hypermobility) occurs in most forms of Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, and it is a hallmark feature of the hypermobile type. Infants and children with hypermobility often have weak muscle tone (hypotonia), which can delay the development of motor skills such as sitting, standing, and walking. The loose joints are unstable and prone to dislocation and chronic pain. In the arthrochalasia type of Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, infants have hypermobility and dislocations of both hips at birth.\n\nThe various forms of Ehlers-Danlos syndrome have been classified in several different ways. Originally, 11 forms of Ehlers-Danlos syndrome were named using Roman numerals to indicate the types (type I, type II, and so on). In 1997, researchers proposed a simpler classification (the Villefranche nomenclature) that reduced the number of types to six and gave them descriptive names based on their major features. In 2017, the classification was updated to include rare forms of Ehlers-Danlos syndrome that were identified more recently. The 2017 classification describes 13 types of Ehlers-Danlos syndrome.\n\nEhlers-Danlos syndrome is a group of disorders that affect connective tissues supporting the skin, bones, blood vessels, and many other organs and tissues. Defects in connective tissues cause the signs and symptoms of these conditions, which range from mildly loose joints to life-threatening complications.
Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 4J
MedGen UID:
370808
Concept ID:
C1970011
Disease or Syndrome
Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 4J (CMT4J) is an autosomal recessive progressive neurologic disorder with a highly variable phenotype and onset ranging from early childhood to adulthood. Most patients have both proximal and distal asymmetric muscle weakness of the upper and lower limbs. There is significant motor dysfunction, followed by variably progressive sensory loss, which may be mild. Nerve conduction studies and nerve biopsies indicate demyelination as well as axonal loss (summary by Nicholson et al., 2011). For a phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of autosomal recessive demyelinating Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease, see CMT4A (214400).
Arthrogryposis, distal, type 1B
MedGen UID:
482156
Concept ID:
C3280526
Disease or Syndrome
Lethal congenital contracture syndrome 4
MedGen UID:
766960
Concept ID:
C3554046
Disease or Syndrome
Lethal congenital contracture syndrome-4 (LCCS4) is a severe form of neuromuscular arthrogryposis characterized by contractures leading to various degrees of flexion or extension limitations evident at birth (Markus et al., 2012). For a general phenotypic description and discussion of genetic heterogeneity of LCCS, see LCCS1 (253310).
Lethal congenital contracture syndrome 8
MedGen UID:
896058
Concept ID:
C4225385
Disease or Syndrome
Lethal congenital contracture syndrome-8 (LCCS8), an axoglial form of arthrogryposis multiplex congenita, is characterized by congenital distal joint contractures, reduced fetal movements, and severe motor paralysis leading to death early in the neonatal period (Laquerriere et al., 2014). For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of lethal congenital contracture syndrome, see LCCS1 (253310).
Lethal congenital contracture syndrome 7
MedGen UID:
894160
Concept ID:
C4225386
Disease or Syndrome
Lethal congenital contracture syndrome-7, an axoglial form of arthrogryposis multiplex congenita (AMC), is characterized by congenital distal joint contractures, polyhydramnios, reduced fetal movements, and severe motor paralysis leading to death early in the neonatal period (Laquerriere et al., 2014). For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of lethal congenital contracture syndrome, see LCCS1 (253310).
Lethal congenital contracture syndrome 11
MedGen UID:
934637
Concept ID:
C4310670
Disease or Syndrome
Lethal congenital contracture syndrome-11 (LCCS11) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by multiple flexion and extension joint contractures resulting from reduced or absent fetal movements (Maluenda et al., 2016). For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of lethal congenital contracture syndrome, see LCCS1 (253310).
Arthrogryposis multiplex congenita 1, neurogenic, with myelin defect
MedGen UID:
1373185
Concept ID:
C4479539
Disease or Syndrome
AMC1 is an autosomal recessive severe neurologic disorder with onset in utero. Most affected individuals die in utero or are subject to pregnancy termination because of lack of fetal movements and prenatal evidence of contractures of virtually all joints. Those who survive have generalized contractures and hypotonia. The disorder is caused by a neurogenic defect and poor or absent myelin formation around peripheral nerves rather than by a muscular defect (summary by Xue et al., 2017). <Genetic Heterogeneity of Arthrogryposis Multiplex Congenita Also see AMC2 (208100), caused by mutation in the ERGIC1 gene (617946); AMC3 (618484), caused by mutation in the SYNE1 gene (608441); AMC4 (618776), caused by mutation in the SCYL2 gene (616365); AMC5 (618947), caused by mutation in the TOR1A gene (605204), AMC6 (619334), caused by mutation in the NEB gene (161650), and AMC7 (301127), caused by mutation in the THOC2 gene (300395).
Gabriele de Vries syndrome
MedGen UID:
1375401
Concept ID:
C4479652
Disease or Syndrome
Gabriele-de Vries syndrome is characterized by mild-to-profound developmental delay / intellectual disability (DD/ID) in all affected individuals and a wide spectrum of functional and morphologic abnormalities. Intrauterine growth restriction or low birth weight and feeding difficulties are common. Congenital brain, eye, heart, kidney, genital, and/or skeletal system anomalies have also been reported. About half of affected individuals have neurologic manifestations, including hypotonia and gait abnormalities. Behavioral issues can include attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, anxiety, autism or autistic behavior, and schizoaffective disorder.
Hyperekplexia 4
MedGen UID:
1642659
Concept ID:
C4693933
Disease or Syndrome
Hyperekplexia-4 is an autosomal recessive severe neurologic disorder apparent at birth. Affected infants have extreme hypertonia and appear stiff and rigid. They have little if any development, poor or absent visual contact, and no spontaneous movement, consistent with an encephalopathy. Some patients have early-onset refractory seizures, and many have inguinal or umbilical hernia. Most patients die in the first months of life due to respiratory failure or other complications (summary by Piard et al., 2018). For a general description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of hyperekplexia, see HKPX1 (149400).
Myasthenic syndrome, congenital, 24, presynaptic
MedGen UID:
1648337
Concept ID:
C4748684
Disease or Syndrome
Trichohepatoneurodevelopmental syndrome
MedGen UID:
1648322
Concept ID:
C4748898
Disease or Syndrome
Trichohepatoneurodevelopmental syndrome is a complex multisystem disorder characterized by woolly or coarse hair, liver dysfunction, pruritus, dysmorphic features, hypotonia, and severe global developmental delay (Morimoto et al., 2018).
Distal arthrogryposis type 2B1
MedGen UID:
1676961
Concept ID:
C5193014
Disease or Syndrome
Distal arthrogryposis is a clinically and genetically heterogeneous disorder characterized by clenched fist, overlapping fingers, camptodactyly, ulnar deviation, and positional foot deformities from birth. It is a disorder of primary limb malformation without primary neurologic or muscle disease. DA1 is not associated with other abnormalities, whereas other forms of DA have additional phenotypic features (Bamshad et al., 1996). The congenital contractures in DA2B (Sheldon-Hall syndrome, SHS) are similar to those observed in DA1, but affected individuals tend to have more prominent nasolabial folds, downslanting palpebral fissures, and a small mouth. DA2B is thought to be the most common of the distal arthrogryposis disorders (summary by Bamshad et al., 2009). For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of distal arthrogryposis, see DA1 (108120).
Myopathy, congenital, with diaphragmatic defects, respiratory insufficiency, and dysmorphic facies
MedGen UID:
1764743
Concept ID:
C5436530
Disease or Syndrome
Congenital myopathy-17 (CMYO17) is an autosomal recessive muscle disorder. Affected individuals present at birth with hypotonia and respiratory insufficiency associated with high diaphragmatic dome on imaging. Other features include poor overall growth, pectus excavatum, dysmorphic facies, and renal anomalies in some. The severity of the disorder is highly variable: some patients may have delayed motor development with mildly decreased endurance, whereas others have more severe hypotonia associated with distal arthrogryposis and lung hypoplasia, resulting in early death (summary by Watson et al., 2016 and Lopes et al., 2018). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of congenital myopathy, see CMYO1A (117000).
Neurodevelopmental disorder with neuromuscular and skeletal abnormalities
MedGen UID:
1803456
Concept ID:
C5676965
Disease or Syndrome
Neurodevelopmental disorder with neuromuscular and skeletal abnormalities (NEDNMS) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by global developmental delay apparent from infancy or early childhood. The severity of the disorder is highly variable. Affected individuals show impaired intellectual development and motor delay associated with either severe hypotonia or hypertonia and spasticity. Most affected individuals have skeletal defects and dysmorphic facial features. Some may have ocular or auditory problems, peripheral neuropathy, behavioral abnormalities, and nonspecific findings on brain imaging (Kurolap et al., 2022).
Spinal muscular atrophy, distal, autosomal recessive, 6
MedGen UID:
1823974
Concept ID:
C5774201
Disease or Syndrome
Autosomal recessive distal hereditary motor neuronopathy-6 (HMNR6) is a neuromuscular disorder characterized by onset of distal muscle weakness in early infancy. Affected individuals often present at birth with distal joint contractures or foot deformities and show delayed motor development, often with inability to walk or frequent falls. Hypo- or hyperreflexia may be observed; limb muscle atrophy may also be present. Patients often show respiratory distress or diaphragmatic palsy. Electrophysiologic studies are consistent with a peripheral motor neuropathy without sensory involvement (Maroofian et al., 2019). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of autosomal recessive distal HMN, see HMNR1 (604320).

Professional guidelines

PubMed

Ravenscroft G, Clayton JS, Faiz F, Sivadorai P, Milnes D, Cincotta R, Moon P, Kamien B, Edwards M, Delatycki M, Lamont PJ, Chan SH, Colley A, Ma A, Collins F, Hennington L, Zhao T, McGillivray G, Ghedia S, Chao K, O'Donnell-Luria A, Laing NG, Davis MR
J Med Genet 2021 Sep;58(9):609-618. Epub 2020 Oct 15 doi: 10.1136/jmedgenet-2020-106901. PMID: 33060286Free PMC Article
Beck AE, McMillin MJ, Gildersleeve HI, Shively KM, Tang A, Bamshad MJ
Am J Med Genet A 2014 Nov;164A(11):2808-13. Epub 2014 Sep 25 doi: 10.1002/ajmg.a.36762. PMID: 25256237
Baty BJ, Cubberley D, Morris C, Carey J
Am J Med Genet 1988 Mar;29(3):501-10. doi: 10.1002/ajmg.1320290305. PMID: 3287922

Recent clinical studies

Etiology

Wall LB, Vuillerman C, Miller PE, Bae DS, Goldfarb CA; CoULD Study Group
J Pediatr Orthop 2020 Aug;40(7):357-360. doi: 10.1097/BPO.0000000000001527. PMID: 32040062
Hall JG, Kimber E, van Bosse HJP
J Pediatr Orthop 2017 Jul/Aug;37 Suppl 1:S4-S8. doi: 10.1097/BPO.0000000000000997. PMID: 28594686
Tajsharghi H, Oldfors A
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Oldfors A
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Diagnosis

Griffet J, Dieterich K, Bourg V, Bourgeois E
Orthop Traumatol Surg Res 2021 Feb;107(1S):102781. Epub 2020 Dec 13 doi: 10.1016/j.otsr.2020.102781. PMID: 33321243
Ravenscroft G, Clayton JS, Faiz F, Sivadorai P, Milnes D, Cincotta R, Moon P, Kamien B, Edwards M, Delatycki M, Lamont PJ, Chan SH, Colley A, Ma A, Collins F, Hennington L, Zhao T, McGillivray G, Ghedia S, Chao K, O'Donnell-Luria A, Laing NG, Davis MR
J Med Genet 2021 Sep;58(9):609-618. Epub 2020 Oct 15 doi: 10.1136/jmedgenet-2020-106901. PMID: 33060286Free PMC Article
Poling MI, Dufresne CR, Chamberlain RL
Orphanet J Rare Dis 2019 Jan 10;14(1):14. doi: 10.1186/s13023-018-0984-2. PMID: 30630514Free PMC Article
Hall JG, Kimber E, van Bosse HJP
J Pediatr Orthop 2017 Jul/Aug;37 Suppl 1:S4-S8. doi: 10.1097/BPO.0000000000000997. PMID: 28594686
Toydemir RM, Bamshad MJ
Orphanet J Rare Dis 2009 Mar 23;4:11. doi: 10.1186/1750-1172-4-11. PMID: 19309503Free PMC Article

Therapy

Poling MI, Morales Corado JA, Chamberlain RL
Syst Rev 2017 Mar 6;6(1):46. doi: 10.1186/s13643-017-0444-4. PMID: 28264711Free PMC Article
Gleich SJ, Tien M, Schroeder DR, Hanson AC, Flick R, Nemergut ME
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Ponde V, Desai AP, Shah D
Paediatr Anaesth 2013 Jan;23(1):74-8. Epub 2012 Sep 25 doi: 10.1111/pan.12022. PMID: 23004225

Prognosis

Iyer A, Lauerova B, Mariano J, Haberlová J, Lassuthova P, Zidkova J, Wright NT, Kontrogianni-Konstantopoulos A
Gene 2024 Jun 5;910:148339. Epub 2024 Mar 2 doi: 10.1016/j.gene.2024.148339. PMID: 38438057Free PMC Article
McAdow J, Yang S, Ou T, Huang G, Dobbs MB, Gurnett CA, Greenberg MJ, Johnson AN
JCI Insight 2022 Jun 22;7(12) doi: 10.1172/jci.insight.152466. PMID: 35579956Free PMC Article
Pollazzon M, Caraffi SG, Faccioli S, Rosato S, Fodstad H, Campos-Xavier B, Soncini E, Comitini G, Frattini D, Grimaldi T, Marinelli M, Martorana D, Percesepe A, Sassi S, Fusco C, Gargano G, Superti-Furga A, Garavelli L
Genes (Basel) 2021 Dec 23;13(1) doi: 10.3390/genes13010029. PMID: 35052370Free PMC Article
Jobling R, Stavropoulos DJ, Marshall CR, Cytrynbaum C, Axford MM, Londero V, Moalem S, Orr J, Rossignol F, Lopes FD, Gauthier J, Alos N, Rupps R, McKinnon M, Adam S, Nowaczyk MJM, Walker S, Scherer SW, Nassif C, Hamdan FF, Deal CL, Soucy JF, Weksberg R, Macleod P, Michaud JL, Chitayat D
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Friedman BD, Heidenreich RA
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Clinical prediction guides

Turgut GT, Altunoglu U, Gulec C, Sarac Sivrikoz T, Kalaycı T, Toksoy G, Avcı Ş, Yıldırım BT, Sayın GY, Kalelioglu IH, Karaman B, Has R, Başaran S, Yuksel A, Kayserili H, Uyguner ZO
Clin Genet 2024 Jun;105(6):596-610. Epub 2024 Jan 26 doi: 10.1111/cge.14490. PMID: 38278647
Pollazzon M, Caraffi SG, Faccioli S, Rosato S, Fodstad H, Campos-Xavier B, Soncini E, Comitini G, Frattini D, Grimaldi T, Marinelli M, Martorana D, Percesepe A, Sassi S, Fusco C, Gargano G, Superti-Furga A, Garavelli L
Genes (Basel) 2021 Dec 23;13(1) doi: 10.3390/genes13010029. PMID: 35052370Free PMC Article
Ravenscroft G, Clayton JS, Faiz F, Sivadorai P, Milnes D, Cincotta R, Moon P, Kamien B, Edwards M, Delatycki M, Lamont PJ, Chan SH, Colley A, Ma A, Collins F, Hennington L, Zhao T, McGillivray G, Ghedia S, Chao K, O'Donnell-Luria A, Laing NG, Davis MR
J Med Genet 2021 Sep;58(9):609-618. Epub 2020 Oct 15 doi: 10.1136/jmedgenet-2020-106901. PMID: 33060286Free PMC Article
Wall LB, Vuillerman C, Miller PE, Bae DS, Goldfarb CA; CoULD Study Group
J Pediatr Orthop 2020 Aug;40(7):357-360. doi: 10.1097/BPO.0000000000001527. PMID: 32040062
Poling MI, Dufresne CR, Chamberlain RL
Orphanet J Rare Dis 2019 Jan 10;14(1):14. doi: 10.1186/s13023-018-0984-2. PMID: 30630514Free PMC Article

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