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Coffin-Lowry syndrome(CLS)

MedGen UID:
75556
Concept ID:
C0265252
Disease or Syndrome
Synonyms: CLS; Coffin syndrome; COFFIN-LOWRY SYNDROME, MILD; Mental retardation with osteocartilaginous abnormalities
SNOMED CT: CLS - Coffin-Lowry syndrome (15182000); Coffin-Lowry syndrome (15182000)
Modes of inheritance:
X-linked dominant inheritance
MedGen UID:
376232
Concept ID:
C1847879
Finding
Source: Orphanet
A mode of inheritance that is observed for dominant traits related to a gene encoded on the X chromosome. In the context of medical genetics, X-linked dominant disorders tend to manifest very severely in affected males. The severity of manifestation in females may depend on the degree of skewed X inactivation.
 
Gene (location): RPS6KA3 (Xp22.12)
 
Monarch Initiative: MONDO:0010561
OMIM®: 303600
Orphanet: ORPHA192

Disease characteristics

Excerpted from the GeneReview: RPS6KA3-Related Intellectual Disability
The phenotypic spectrum associated with RPS6KA3 pathogenic variants is a continuum. Coffin-Lowry syndrome (CLS) classically manifests in males with developmental delay, intellectual disability, neurologic manifestations (hypotonia, stimulus-induced drop attacks, spastic paraparesis, and seizures), musculoskeletal manifestations (kyphoscoliosis and pectus deformity), and characteristic craniofacial and hand findings. Dental issues, sensorineural hearing loss, and obstructive sleep apnea also occur. The milder end of the continuum in males includes neurodevelopmental disabilities with or without less pronounced multisystem involvement. Heterozygous females often exhibit clinical manifestations that can be consistent with clinically defined CLS but are typically less severe than those seen in affected males. Developmental delay and intellectual disability comprise the core phenotypic findings, and quality of life and prognosis are variably affected by the presence and severity of neurologic and musculoskeletal involvement. [from GeneReviews]
Authors:
R Curtis Rogers  |  Fatima E Abidi   view full author information

Additional descriptions

From OMIM
Coffin-Lowry syndrome is a rare form of X-linked mental retardation characterized by skeletal malformations, growth retardation, hearing deficit, paroxysmal movement disorders, and cognitive impairment in affected males and some carrier females (Kesler et al., 2007). Hendrich and Bickmore (2001) reviewed human disorders which share in common defects of chromatin structure or modification, including the ATR-X spectrum of disorders (301040), ICF syndrome (242860), Rett syndrome (312750), Rubinstein-Taybi syndrome (180849), and Coffin-Lowry syndrome. Pereira et al. (2010) provided a review of Coffin-Lowry syndrome. Mutation in the RPS6KA3 gene can also cause nonsyndromic X-linked mental retardation-19 (MRX19; 300844), a milder disorder without skeletal anomalies.  http://www.omim.org/entry/303600
From MedlinePlus Genetics
Coffin-Lowry syndrome is a condition that affects many parts of the body. The signs and symptoms are usually more severe in males than in females, although the features of this disorder range from very mild to severe in affected women.

Males with Coffin-Lowry syndrome typically have severe to profound intellectual disability and delayed development. Affected women may be cognitively normal, or they may have intellectual disability ranging from mild to profound. Beginning in childhood or adolescence, some people with this condition experience brief episodes of collapse when excited or startled by a loud noise. These attacks are called stimulus-induced drop episodes (SIDEs).

Most affected males and some affected females have distinctive facial features including a prominent forehead, widely spaced and downward-slanting eyes, a short nose with a wide tip, and a wide mouth with full lips. These features become more pronounced with age. Soft hands with short, tapered fingers are also characteristic of Coffin-Lowry syndrome. Additional features of this condition include short stature, an unusually small head (microcephaly), progressive abnormal curvature of the spine (kyphoscoliosis), and other skeletal abnormalities.  https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/condition/coffin-lowry-syndrome

Clinical features

From HPO
Pes planus
MedGen UID:
42034
Concept ID:
C0016202
Anatomical Abnormality
A foot where the longitudinal arch of the foot is in contact with the ground or floor when the individual is standing; or, in a patient lying supine, a foot where the arch is in contact with the surface of a flat board pressed against the sole of the foot by the examiner with a pressure similar to that expected from weight bearing; or, the height of the arch is reduced.
Coxa valga
MedGen UID:
116080
Concept ID:
C0239137
Finding
Coxa valga is a deformity of the hip in which the angle between the femoral shaft and the femoral neck is increased compared to age-adjusted values (about 150 degrees in newborns gradually reducing to 120-130 degrees in adults).
Broad palm
MedGen UID:
75535
Concept ID:
C0264142
Congenital Abnormality
For children from birth to 4 years of age the palm width is more than 2 SD above the mean; for children from 4 to 16 years of age the palm width is above the 95th centile; or, the width of the palm appears disproportionately wide for the length.
Single transverse palmar crease
MedGen UID:
96108
Concept ID:
C0424731
Finding
The distal and proximal transverse palmar creases are merged into a single transverse palmar crease.
Tapered finger
MedGen UID:
98098
Concept ID:
C0426886
Finding
The gradual reduction in girth of the finger from proximal to distal.
Short metacarpal
MedGen UID:
323064
Concept ID:
C1837084
Anatomical Abnormality
Diminished length of one or more metacarpal bones in relation to the others of the same hand or to the contralateral metacarpal.
Drumstick terminal phalanges
MedGen UID:
375517
Concept ID:
C1844822
Finding
Rounding and broadening of the tufts of the distal phalanges.
Mitral regurgitation
MedGen UID:
7670
Concept ID:
C0026266
Disease or Syndrome
An abnormality of the mitral valve characterized by insufficiency or incompetence of the mitral valve resulting in retrograde leaking of blood through the mitral valve upon ventricular contraction.
Short stature
MedGen UID:
87607
Concept ID:
C0349588
Finding
A height below that which is expected according to age and gender norms. Although there is no universally accepted definition of short stature, many refer to "short stature" as height more than 2 standard deviations below the mean for age and gender (or below the 3rd percentile for age and gender dependent norms).
Decreased body weight
MedGen UID:
1806755
Concept ID:
C5574742
Finding
Abnormally low body weight.
Rectal prolapse
MedGen UID:
11151
Concept ID:
C0034888
Disease or Syndrome
Protrusion of the rectal mucous membrane through the anus.
Sensorineural hearing loss disorder
MedGen UID:
9164
Concept ID:
C0018784
Disease or Syndrome
A type of hearing impairment in one or both ears related to an abnormal functionality of the cochlear nerve.
Hearing impairment
MedGen UID:
235586
Concept ID:
C1384666
Disease or Syndrome
A decreased magnitude of the sensory perception of sound.
Protruding ear
MedGen UID:
343309
Concept ID:
C1855285
Finding
Angle formed by the plane of the ear and the mastoid bone greater than the 97th centile for age (objective); or, outer edge of the helix more than 2 cm from the mastoid at the point of maximum distance (objective).
Seizure
MedGen UID:
20693
Concept ID:
C0036572
Sign or Symptom
A seizure is an intermittent abnormality of nervous system physiology characterized by a transient occurrence of signs and/or symptoms due to abnormal excessive or synchronous neuronal activity in the brain.
Global developmental delay
MedGen UID:
107838
Concept ID:
C0557874
Finding
A delay in the achievement of motor or mental milestones in the domains of development of a child, including motor skills, speech and language, cognitive skills, and social and emotional skills. This term should only be used to describe children younger than five years of age.
Ventriculomegaly
MedGen UID:
480553
Concept ID:
C3278923
Finding
An increase in size of the ventricular system of the brain.
Intellectual disability
MedGen UID:
811461
Concept ID:
C3714756
Mental or Behavioral Dysfunction
Intellectual disability, previously referred to as mental retardation, is characterized by subnormal intellectual functioning that occurs during the developmental period. It is defined by an IQ score below 70.
Inguinal hernia
MedGen UID:
6817
Concept ID:
C0019294
Finding
Protrusion of the contents of the abdominal cavity through the inguinal canal.
Kyphosis
MedGen UID:
44042
Concept ID:
C0022821
Anatomical Abnormality
Exaggerated anterior convexity of the thoracic vertebral column.
Hypotonia
MedGen UID:
10133
Concept ID:
C0026827
Finding
Hypotonia is an abnormally low muscle tone (the amount of tension or resistance to movement in a muscle). Even when relaxed, muscles have a continuous and passive partial contraction which provides some resistance to passive stretching. Hypotonia thus manifests as diminished resistance to passive stretching. Hypotonia is not the same as muscle weakness, although the two conditions can co-exist.
Scoliosis
MedGen UID:
11348
Concept ID:
C0036439
Disease or Syndrome
The presence of an abnormal lateral curvature of the spine.
Uterine prolapse
MedGen UID:
22591
Concept ID:
C0042140
Finding
The presence of prolapse of the uterus.
Pectus carinatum
MedGen UID:
57643
Concept ID:
C0158731
Finding
A deformity of the chest caused by overgrowth of the ribs and characterized by protrusion of the sternum.
Delayed skeletal maturation
MedGen UID:
108148
Concept ID:
C0541764
Finding
A decreased rate of skeletal maturation. Delayed skeletal maturation can be diagnosed on the basis of an estimation of the bone age from radiographs of specific bones in the human body.
Thoracic lordosis
MedGen UID:
331906
Concept ID:
C1835122
Anatomical Abnormality
Thoracic lordosis refers to an abnormal curvature of the thoracic spine in which the thoracic spine displays lordosis (inward curve) instead of the normal kyphosis (outward curve).
Narrow iliac wing
MedGen UID:
373150
Concept ID:
C1836688
Finding
Decreased width of the wing (or ala) of the ilium (which is the large expanded portion which bounds the greater pelvis laterally).
Hyperextensibility of the finger joints
MedGen UID:
334982
Concept ID:
C1844577
Finding
The ability of the finger joints to move beyond their normal range of motion.
Lumbar kyphosis
MedGen UID:
336792
Concept ID:
C1844818
Finding
Over curvature of the lumbar region.
Thickened calvaria
MedGen UID:
346823
Concept ID:
C1858452
Finding
The presence of an abnormally thick calvaria.
Pectus excavatum
MedGen UID:
781174
Concept ID:
C2051831
Finding
A defect of the chest wall characterized by a depression of the sternum, giving the chest ("pectus") a caved-in ("excavatum") appearance.
Sternal cleft
MedGen UID:
419096
Concept ID:
C2931507
Congenital Abnormality
The sternal cleft is a rare congenital anomaly resulting from a fusion failure of the sternum.
Delayed closure of the anterior fontanelle
MedGen UID:
825928
Concept ID:
C3840083
Finding
A delay in closure (ossification) of the anterior fontanelle, which generally undergoes closure around the 18th month of life.
Microcephaly
MedGen UID:
1644158
Concept ID:
C4551563
Finding
Head circumference below 2 standard deviations below the mean for age and gender.
Partial congenital absence of teeth
MedGen UID:
43794
Concept ID:
C0020608
Congenital Abnormality
Tooth agenesis in some form is a common human anomaly that affects approximately 20% of the population. Although tooth agenesis is associated with numerous syndromes, several case reports describe nonsyndromic forms that are either sporadic or familial in nature, as reviewed by Gorlin et al. (1990). The incidence of familial tooth agenesis varies with each class of teeth. Most commonly affected are third molars (wisdom teeth), followed by either upper lateral incisors or lower second premolars; agenesis involving first and second molars is very rare. Also see 114600 and 302400. Selective tooth agenesis without associated systemic disorders has sometimes been divided into 2 types: oligodontia, defined as agenesis of 6 or more permanent teeth, and hypodontia, defined as agenesis of less than 6 teeth. The number in both cases does not include absence of third molars (wisdom teeth). Faulty use of the terms, however, have confounded their use. The term 'partial anodontia' is obsolete (Salinas, 1978). Genetic Heterogeneity of Selective Tooth Agenesis Other forms of selective tooth agenesis include STHAG2 (602639), mapped to chromosome 16q12; STHAG3 (604625), caused by mutation in the PAX9 gene (167416) on chromosome 14q12; STHAG4 (150400), caused by mutation in the WNT10A gene (606268) on chromosome 2q35; STHAG5 (610926), mapped to chromosome 10q11; STHAG7 (616724), caused by mutation in the LRP6 gene (603507) on chromosome 12p13; STHAG8 (617073), caused by mutation in the WNT10B gene (601906) on chromosome 12q13; STHAG9 (617275), caused by mutation in the GREM2 gene (608832) on chromosome 1q43; STHAG10 (620173), caused by mutation in the TSPEAR gene (612920) on chromosome 21q22; and STHAGX1 (313500), caused by mutation in the EDA gene (300451) on chromosome Xq13. A type of selective tooth agenesis that was formerly designated STHAG6 has been incorporated into the dental anomalies and short stature syndrome (DASS; 601216). Of 34 unrelated patients with nonsyndromic tooth agenesis, van den Boogaard et al. (2012) found that 56% (19 patients) had mutations in the WNT10A gene (STHAG4), whereas only 3% and 9% had mutations in the MSX1 (STHAG1) and PAX9 (STHAG3) genes, respectively. The authors concluded that WNT10A is a major gene in the etiology of isolated hypodontia. Genotype-Phenotype Correlations Yu et al. (2016) observed that the most frequently missing permanent teeth in WNT10B-associated oligodontia were the lateral incisors (83.3%), whereas premolars were missing only 51.4% of the time, which they noted was a pattern 'clearly different' from the oligodontia patterns resulting from WNT10A mutations. They also stated that the selective pattern in WNT10B mutants was different from that associated with mutations in other genes, such as MSX1, in which second premolars are missing, and PAX9, in which there is agenesis of molars.
Dental malocclusion
MedGen UID:
9869
Concept ID:
C0024636
Anatomical Abnormality
Dental malocclusion refers to an abnormality of the occlusion, or alignment, of the teeth and the way the upper and lower teeth fit together, resulting in overcrowding of teeth or in abnormal bite patterns.
Open mouth
MedGen UID:
116104
Concept ID:
C0240379
Finding
A facial appearance characterized by a permanently or nearly permanently opened mouth.
High palate
MedGen UID:
66814
Concept ID:
C0240635
Congenital Abnormality
Height of the palate more than 2 SD above the mean (objective) or palatal height at the level of the first permanent molar more than twice the height of the teeth (subjective).
Mandibular prognathia
MedGen UID:
98316
Concept ID:
C0399526
Finding
Abnormal prominence of the chin related to increased length of the mandible.
Downslanted palpebral fissures
MedGen UID:
98391
Concept ID:
C0423110
Finding
The palpebral fissure inclination is more than two standard deviations below the mean.
Telecanthus
MedGen UID:
140836
Concept ID:
C0423113
Finding
Distance between the inner canthi more than two standard deviations above the mean (objective); or, apparently increased distance between the inner canthi.
Wide nose
MedGen UID:
140869
Concept ID:
C0426421
Finding
Interalar distance more than two standard deviations above the mean for age, i.e., an apparently increased width of the nasal base and alae.
Narrow palate
MedGen UID:
278045
Concept ID:
C1398312
Finding
Width of the palate more than 2 SD below the mean (objective) or apparently decreased palatal width (subjective).
Prominent forehead
MedGen UID:
373291
Concept ID:
C1837260
Finding
Forward prominence of the entire forehead, due to protrusion of the frontal bone.
Thick lower lip vermilion
MedGen UID:
326567
Concept ID:
C1839739
Finding
Increased thickness of the lower lip, leading to a prominent appearance of the lower lip. The height of the vermilion of the lower lip in the midline is more than 2 SD above the mean. Alternatively, an apparently increased height of the vermilion of the lower lip in the frontal view (subjective).
Anteverted nares
MedGen UID:
326648
Concept ID:
C1840077
Finding
Anteriorly-facing nostrils viewed with the head in the Frankfurt horizontal and the eyes of the observer level with the eyes of the subject. This gives the appearance of an upturned nose (upturned nasal tip).
Prominent supraorbital ridges
MedGen UID:
333982
Concept ID:
C1842060
Finding
Greater than average forward and/or lateral protrusion of the supraorbital portion of the frontal bones.
Thick nasal alae
MedGen UID:
335032
Concept ID:
C1844809
Finding
Increase in bulk of the ala nasi.
Thick nasal septum
MedGen UID:
335033
Concept ID:
C1844810
Finding
Abnormally increased thickness of the nasal septum.
Widely spaced teeth
MedGen UID:
337093
Concept ID:
C1844813
Finding
Increased spaces (diastemata) between most of the teeth in the same dental arch.
Coarse facial features
MedGen UID:
335284
Concept ID:
C1845847
Finding
Absence of fine and sharp appearance of brows, nose, lips, mouth, and chin, usually because of rounded and heavy features or thickened skin with or without thickening of subcutaneous and bony tissues.
Broad columella
MedGen UID:
376932
Concept ID:
C1851059
Finding
Increased width of the columella.
Everted lower lip vermilion
MedGen UID:
344003
Concept ID:
C1853246
Finding
An abnormal configuration of the lower lip such that it is turned outward i.e., everted, with the Inner aspect of the lower lip vermilion (normally opposing the teeth) being visible in a frontal view.
Thick eyebrow
MedGen UID:
377914
Concept ID:
C1853487
Finding
Increased density/number and/or increased diameter of eyebrow hairs.
Short nose
MedGen UID:
343052
Concept ID:
C1854114
Finding
Distance from nasion to subnasale more than two standard deviations below the mean, or alternatively, an apparently decreased length from the nasal root to the nasal tip.
Highly arched eyebrow
MedGen UID:
358357
Concept ID:
C1868571
Finding
Increased height of the central portion of the eyebrow, forming a crescent, semicircular, or inverted U shape.
Cutis laxa
MedGen UID:
8206
Concept ID:
C0010495
Disease or Syndrome
Wrinkled, redundant, inelastic and sagging skin.
Acrocyanosis
MedGen UID:
65138
Concept ID:
C0221347
Finding
Bluish discoloration of the skin of the hands or feet.
Cutis marmorata
MedGen UID:
78093
Concept ID:
C0263401
Disease or Syndrome
A reticular discoloration of the skin with cyanotic (reddish-blue appearing) areas surrounding pale central areas due to dilation of capillary blood vessels and stagnation of blood within the vessels. Cutis marmorata generally occurs on the legs, arms and trunk and is often more severe in cold weather.
Coarse hair
MedGen UID:
124454
Concept ID:
C0277959
Finding
Hair shafts are rough in texture.
Hyperconvex fingernails
MedGen UID:
337095
Concept ID:
C1844825
Finding
When viewed on end (with the finger tip pointing toward the examiner's eye) the curve of the fingernail forms a tighter curve of convexity.
Hypertelorism
MedGen UID:
9373
Concept ID:
C0020534
Finding
Although hypertelorism means an excessive distance between any paired organs (e.g., the nipples), the use of the word has come to be confined to ocular hypertelorism. Hypertelorism occurs as an isolated feature and is also a feature of many syndromes, e.g., Opitz G syndrome (see 300000), Greig cephalopolysyndactyly (175700), and Noonan syndrome (163950) (summary by Cohen et al., 1995).

Term Hierarchy

CClinical test,  RResearch test,  OOMIM,  GGeneReviews,  VClinVar  
  • CROGVCoffin-Lowry syndrome
Follow this link to review classifications for Coffin-Lowry syndrome in Orphanet.

Professional guidelines

PubMed

Rojnueangnit K, Jones JR, Basehore MJ, Robin NH
Am J Med Genet A 2014 Feb;164A(2):516-21. Epub 2013 Dec 5 doi: 10.1002/ajmg.a.36299. PMID: 24311527

Recent clinical studies

Etiology

Huidobro C, Fernandez AF, Fraga MF
Cell Mol Life Sci 2013 May;70(9):1543-73. Epub 2013 Mar 10 doi: 10.1007/s00018-013-1296-2. PMID: 23474979Free PMC Article
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Brain Dev 2005 Mar;27(2):108-13. doi: 10.1016/j.braindev.2003.11.010. PMID: 15668049
Johnston MV
Brain Dev 2004 Mar;26(2):73-80. doi: 10.1016/S0387-7604(03)00102-5. PMID: 15036425
Jacquot S, Merienne K, Pannetier S, Blumenfeld S, Schinzel A, Hanauer A
Eur J Hum Genet 1998 Nov-Dec;6(6):578-82. doi: 10.1038/sj.ejhg.5200230. PMID: 9887375
Collacott RA, Warrington JS, Young ID
J Ment Defic Res 1987 Jun;31 ( Pt 2):199-207. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2788.1987.tb01356.x. PMID: 3625766

Diagnosis

Lange IR, Stone P, Aftimos S
J Obstet Gynaecol Can 2010 Jul;32(7):691-4. doi: 10.1016/s1701-2163(16)34576-5. PMID: 20707959
Pereira PM, Schneider A, Pannetier S, Heron D, Hanauer A
Eur J Hum Genet 2010 Jun;18(6):627-33. Epub 2009 Nov 4 doi: 10.1038/ejhg.2009.189. PMID: 19888300Free PMC Article
Horbelt CV, Aubertin MA
Gen Dent 2009 Sep-Oct;57(5):468-71. PMID: 19903636
Hanauer A, Young ID
J Med Genet 2002 Oct;39(10):705-13. doi: 10.1136/jmg.39.10.705. PMID: 12362025Free PMC Article
Young ID
J Med Genet 1988 May;25(5):344-8. doi: 10.1136/jmg.25.5.344. PMID: 3290491Free PMC Article

Therapy

Jancewicz I, Siedlecki JA, Sarnowski TJ, Sarnowska E
Epigenetics Chromatin 2019 Nov 13;12(1):68. doi: 10.1186/s13072-019-0315-4. PMID: 31722744Free PMC Article
Cho YY
Curr Pharm Des 2017 Nov 16;23(29):4247-4258. doi: 10.2174/1381612823666170714142338. PMID: 28714417
Jurkiewicz D, Jezela-Stanek A, Ciara E, Piekutowska-Abramczuk D, Kugaudo M, Gajdulewicz M, Chrzanowska K, Popowska E, Krajewska-Walasek M
Eur J Med Genet 2010 Sep-Oct;53(5):268-73. Epub 2010 Jul 15 doi: 10.1016/j.ejmg.2010.07.006. PMID: 20637903
Fryssira H, Kountoupi S, Delaunoy JP, Thomaidis L
Genet Couns 2002;13(4):405-9. PMID: 12558110
Crow YJ, Zuberi SM, McWilliam R, Tolmie JL, Hollman A, Pohl K, Stephenson JB
J Med Genet 1998 Feb;35(2):94-8. doi: 10.1136/jmg.35.2.94. PMID: 9507386Free PMC Article

Prognosis

Liu RY, Zhang Y, Smolen P, Cleary LJ, Byrne JH
Learn Mem 2022 Dec;29(12):435-446. Epub 2022 Nov 29 doi: 10.1101/lm.053625.122. PMID: 36446603Free PMC Article
Wakami T, Yoshizawa K, Maeda T, Mori O, Tamura N
Asian Cardiovasc Thorac Ann 2022 Nov;30(9):1017-1019. Epub 2022 Sep 7 doi: 10.1177/02184923221123879. PMID: 36069024
Yoshida T, Ohashi T, Furui M, Kageyama S, Kodani N, Kobayashi Y, Hirai Y, Sakakura R
Gen Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2015 May;63(5):290-2. Epub 2013 Jul 20 doi: 10.1007/s11748-013-0291-8. PMID: 23873216
Hunter AG
Am J Med Genet 2002 Sep 1;111(4):345-55. doi: 10.1002/ajmg.10574. PMID: 12210291
Massin MM, Radermecker MA, Verloes A, Jacquot S, Grenade T
Acta Paediatr 1999 Apr;88(4):468-70. doi: 10.1080/08035259950169909. PMID: 10342551

Clinical prediction guides

Liu RY, Zhang Y, Smolen P, Cleary LJ, Byrne JH
Learn Mem 2022 Dec;29(12):435-446. Epub 2022 Nov 29 doi: 10.1101/lm.053625.122. PMID: 36446603Free PMC Article
Koehne T, Jeschke A, Petermann F, Seitz S, Neven M, Peters S, Luther J, Schweizer M, Schinke T, Kahl-Nieke B, Amling M, David JP
J Dent Res 2016 Jul;95(7):752-60. Epub 2016 Feb 29 doi: 10.1177/0022034516634329. PMID: 26927527
Herrera-Soto JA, Santiago-Cornier A, Segal LS, Ramirez N, Tamai J
J Pediatr Orthop 2007 Jan-Feb;27(1):85-9. doi: 10.1097/01.bpo.0000187994.94515.9d. PMID: 17195803
Massin MM, Radermecker MA, Verloes A, Jacquot S, Grenade T
Acta Paediatr 1999 Apr;88(4):468-70. doi: 10.1080/08035259950169909. PMID: 10342551
Crow YJ, Zuberi SM, McWilliam R, Tolmie JL, Hollman A, Pohl K, Stephenson JB
J Med Genet 1998 Feb;35(2):94-8. doi: 10.1136/jmg.35.2.94. PMID: 9507386Free PMC Article

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