PNPLA6 disorders span a phenotypic continuum characterized by variable combinations of cerebellar ataxia; upper motor neuron involvement manifesting as spasticity and/or brisk reflexes; chorioretinal dystrophy associated with variable degrees of reduced visual function; and hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (delayed puberty and lack of secondary sex characteristics). The hypogonadotropic hypogonadism occurs either in isolation or as part of anterior hypopituitarism (growth hormone, thyroid hormone, or gonadotropin deficiencies). Common but less frequent features are peripheral neuropathy (usually of axonal type manifesting as reduced distal reflexes, diminished vibratory sensation, and/or distal muscle wasting); hair anomalies (long eyelashes, bushy eyebrows, or scalp alopecia); short stature; and impaired cognitive functioning (learning disabilities in children; deficits in attention, visuospatial abilities, and recall in adults). Some of these features can occur in distinct clusters on the phenotypic continuum: Boucher-Neuhäuser syndrome (cerebellar ataxia, chorioretinal dystrophy, and hypogonadotropic hypogonadism); Gordon Holmes syndrome (cerebellar ataxia, hypogonadotropic hypogonadism, and – to a variable degree – brisk reflexes); Oliver-McFarlane syndrome (trichomegaly, chorioretinal dystrophy, short stature, intellectual disability, and hypopituitarism); Laurence-Moon syndrome; and spastic paraplegia type 39 (SPG39) (upper motor neuron involvement, peripheral neuropathy, and sometimes reduced cognitive functioning and/or cerebellar ataxia).

Waardenburg syndrome type 3 is an auditory-pigmentary syndrome characterized by pigmentary abnormalities of the hair, skin, and eyes; congenital sensorineural hearing loss; presence of 'dystopia canthorum,' the lateral displacement of the ocular inner canthi; and upper limb abnormalities (reviews by Read and Newton, 1997 and Pingault et al., 2010). WS type 3 is also referred to as 'Klein-Waardenburg syndrome' (Gorlin et al., 1976). Clinical Variability of Waardenburg Syndrome Types 1-4 Waardenburg syndrome has been classified into 4 main phenotypes. Type I Waardenburg syndrome (WS1; 193500) is characterized by pigmentary abnormalities of the hair, including a white forelock and premature graying; pigmentary changes of the iris, such as heterochromia iridis and brilliant blue eyes; congenital sensorineural hearing loss; and 'dystopia canthorum.' WS type II (WS2) is distinguished from type I by the absence of dystopia canthorum. WS type III has dystopia canthorum and is distinguished by the presence of upper limb abnormalities. WS type IV (WS4; 277580), also known as Waardenburg-Shah syndrome, has the additional feature of Hirschsprung disease (reviews by Read and Newton, 1997 and Pingault et al., 2010).

X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy (X-ALD) affects the nervous system white matter and the adrenal cortex. Three main phenotypes are seen in affected males: The childhood cerebral form manifests most commonly between ages four and eight years. It initially resembles attention-deficit disorder or hyperactivity; progressive impairment of cognition, behavior, vision, hearing, and motor function follow the initial symptoms and often lead to total disability within six months to two years. Most individuals have impaired adrenocortical function at the time that neurologic disturbances are first noted. Adrenomyeloneuropathy (AMN) manifests most commonly in an individual in his twenties or middle age as progressive stiffness and weakness of the legs, sphincter disturbances, sexual dysfunction, and often, impaired adrenocortical function; all symptoms are progressive over decades. "Addison disease only" presents with primary adrenocortical insufficiency between age two years and adulthood and most commonly by age 7.5 years, without evidence of neurologic abnormality; however, some degree of neurologic disability (most commonly AMN) usually develops by middle age. More than 20% of female carriers develop mild-to-moderate spastic paraparesis in middle age or later. Adrenal function is usually normal.

PLP1 disorders of central nervous system myelin formation include a range of phenotypes from Pelizaeus-Merzbacher disease (PMD) to spastic paraplegia 2 (SPG2). PMD typically manifests in infancy or early childhood with nystagmus, hypotonia, and cognitive impairment; the findings progress to severe spasticity and ataxia. Life span is shortened. SPG2 manifests as spastic paraparesis with or without CNS involvement and usually normal life span. Intrafamilial variation of phenotypes can be observed, but the signs are usually fairly consistent within families. Heterozygous females may manifest mild-to-moderate signs of the disease.

L1 syndrome involves a phenotypic spectrum ranging from severe to mild and includes three clinical phenotypes: X-linked hydrocephalus with stenosis of the aqueduct of Sylvius (HSAS). MASA (mental retardation [intellectual disability], aphasia [delayed speech], spastic paraplegia [shuffling gait], adducted thumbs) syndrome including X-linked complicated hereditary spastic paraplegia type 1. X-linked complicated corpus callosum agenesis. Males with HSAS are born with severe hydrocephalus, adducted thumbs, and spasticity; intellectual disability is severe. In less severely affected males, hydrocephalus may be subclinically present and documented only because of developmental delay; intellectual disability ranges from mild (IQ: 50-70) to moderate (IQ: 30-50). It is important to note that all phenotypes can be observed in affected individuals within the same family.

Hyperornithinemia-hyperammonemia-homocitrullinuria (HHH) syndrome is a disorder of the urea cycle and ornithine degradation pathway. Clinical manifestations and age of onset vary among individuals even in the same family. Neonatal onset (~8% of affected individuals). Manifestations of hyperammonemia usually begin 24-48 hours after feeding begins and can include lethargy, somnolence, refusal to feed, vomiting, tachypnea with respiratory alkalosis, and/or seizures. Infantile, childhood, and adult onset (~92%). Affected individuals may present with: Chronic neurocognitive deficits (including developmental delay, ataxia, spasticity, learning disabilities, cognitive deficits, and/or unexplained seizures); Acute encephalopathy secondary to hyperammonemic crisis precipitated by a variety of factors; and Chronic liver dysfunction (unexplained elevation of liver transaminases with or without mild coagulopathy, with or without mild hyperammonemia and protein intolerance). Neurologic findings and cognitive abilities can continue to deteriorate despite early metabolic control that prevents hyperammonemia.

Homocarnosinosis, an elevation of homocarnosine, is a biochemical aberration of unknown significance. Only one such family has been reported (Sjaastad et al., 2018). Homocarnosinosis was previously thought to be a disorder characterized by marked elevation of homocarnosine in the cerebrospinal fluid along with spastic paraplegia, impaired intellectual development, and retinal pigmentation based on the report of one Norwegian family reported by Sjaastad et al. (1976). Sjaastad et al. (2018) performed genetic analysis postmortem in this family and identified a homozygous mutation in the SPG11 gene (610844). A reevaluation of the clinical symptoms and findings in the family correlated with spastic paraplegia-11 (SPG11; 604360). A study of other patients with SPG11 did not find elevated levels of homocarnosine.

Troyer syndrome is characterized by progressive spastic paraparesis, dysarthria, pseudobulbar palsy, distal amyotrophy, short stature, and subtle skeletal abnormalities. Most affected children exhibit delays in walking and speech and difficulty in managing oral secretions, followed by increased lower-limb spasticity and slow deterioration in both gait and speech. Mild cerebellar signs are common. The most severely affected individuals have choreoathetosis. Emotional lability / difficulty in controlling emotions and affective disorders, such as inappropriate euphoria and/or crying, are frequently described. Life expectancy is normal.

Allan-Herndon-Dudley syndrome (AHDS), an X-linked disorder, is characterized in males by neurologic findings (hypotonia and feeding difficulties in infancy, developmental delay / intellectual disability ranging from mild to profound) and later-onset pyramidal signs, extrapyramidal findings (dystonia, choreoathetosis, paroxysmal movement disorder, hypokinesia, masked facies), and seizures, often with drug resistance. Additional findings can include dysthyroidism (manifest as poor weight gain, reduced muscle mass, and variable cold intolerance, sweating, elevated heart rate, and irritability) and pathognomonic thyroid test results. Most heterozygous females are not clinically affected but may have minor thyroid test abnormalities.

L1 syndrome involves a phenotypic spectrum ranging from severe to mild and includes three clinical phenotypes: X-linked hydrocephalus with stenosis of the aqueduct of Sylvius (HSAS). MASA (mental retardation [intellectual disability], aphasia [delayed speech], spastic paraplegia [shuffling gait], adducted thumbs) syndrome including X-linked complicated hereditary spastic paraplegia type 1. X-linked complicated corpus callosum agenesis. Males with HSAS are born with severe hydrocephalus, adducted thumbs, and spasticity; intellectual disability is severe. In less severely affected males, hydrocephalus may be subclinically present and documented only because of developmental delay; intellectual disability ranges from mild (IQ: 50-70) to moderate (IQ: 30-50). It is important to note that all phenotypes can be observed in affected individuals within the same family.

Spastic paraplegia-23 (SPG23) is an autosomal recessive neurologic disorder characterized by childhood-onset spastic paraplegia resulting in gait difficulties and associated with pigmentary abnormalities, including premature graying of the hair and vitiligo-like or hyperpigmented skin lesions. Some patients may also have a peripheral neuropathy (summary by Lee et al., 2017).

This syndrome is characterized by microcephaly, severe intellectual deficit, phalangeal anomalies (cutaneous syndactyly of the fingers, toe brachyclinodactyly and nail hypoplasia) and neurological manifestations (epilepsy, spastic/dystonic paraplegia and brisk reflexes).

The spectrum of MECP2-related phenotypes in females ranges from classic Rett syndrome to variant Rett syndrome with a broader clinical phenotype (either milder or more severe than classic Rett syndrome) to mild learning disabilities; the spectrum in males ranges from severe neonatal encephalopathy to pyramidal signs, parkinsonism, and macroorchidism (PPM-X) syndrome to severe syndromic/nonsyndromic intellectual disability. Females: Classic Rett syndrome, a progressive neurodevelopmental disorder primarily affecting girls, is characterized by apparently normal psychomotor development during the first six to 18 months of life, followed by a short period of developmental stagnation, then rapid regression in language and motor skills, followed by long-term stability. During the phase of rapid regression, repetitive, stereotypic hand movements replace purposeful hand use. Additional findings include fits of screaming and inconsolable crying, autistic features, panic-like attacks, bruxism, episodic apnea and/or hyperpnea, gait ataxia and apraxia, tremors, seizures, and acquired microcephaly. Males: Severe neonatal-onset encephalopathy, the most common phenotype in affected males, is characterized by a relentless clinical course that follows a metabolic-degenerative type of pattern, abnormal tone, involuntary movements, severe seizures, and breathing abnormalities. Death often occurs before age two years.

Autosomal recessive congenital ichthyosis (ARCI) encompasses several forms of nonsyndromic ichthyosis. Although most neonates with ARCI are collodion babies, the clinical presentation and severity of ARCI may vary significantly, ranging from harlequin ichthyosis, the most severe and often fatal form, to lamellar ichthyosis (LI) and (nonbullous) congenital ichthyosiform erythroderma (CIE). These phenotypes are now recognized to fall on a continuum; however, the phenotypic descriptions are clinically useful for clarification of prognosis and management. Infants with harlequin ichthyosis are usually born prematurely and are encased in thick, hard, armor-like plates of cornified skin that severely restrict movement. Life-threatening complications in the immediate postnatal period include respiratory distress, feeding problems, and systemic infection. Collodion babies are born with a taut, shiny, translucent or opaque membrane that encases the entire body and lasts for days to weeks. LI and CIE are seemingly distinct phenotypes: classic, severe LI with dark brown, plate-like scale with no erythroderma and CIE with finer whiter scale and underlying generalized redness of the skin. Affected individuals with severe involvement can have ectropion, eclabium, scarring alopecia involving the scalp and eyebrows, and palmar and plantar keratoderma. Besides these major forms of nonsyndromic ichthyosis, a few rare subtypes have been recognized, such as bathing suit ichthyosis, self-improving collodion ichthyosis, or ichthyosis-prematurity syndrome.

The phenotypic spectrum of glucose transporter type 1 deficiency syndrome (Glut1 DS) is now known to be a continuum that includes the classic phenotype as well as paroxysmal exercise-induced dyskinesia and epilepsy (previously known as dystonia 18 [DYT18]) and paroxysmal choreoathetosis with spasticity (previously known as dystonia 9 [DYT9]), atypical childhood absence epilepsy, myoclonic astatic epilepsy, and paroxysmal non-epileptic findings including intermittent ataxia, choreoathetosis, dystonia, and alternating hemiplegia. The classic phenotype is characterized by infantile-onset seizures, delayed neurologic development, acquired microcephaly, and complex movement disorders. Seizures in classic early-onset Glut1 DS begin before age six months. Several seizure types occur: generalized tonic or clonic, focal, myoclonic, atypical absence, atonic, and unclassified. In some infants, apneic episodes and abnormal episodic eye-head movements similar to opsoclonus may precede the onset of seizures. The frequency, severity, and type of seizures vary among affected individuals and are not related to disease severity. Cognitive impairment, ranging from learning disabilities to severe intellectual disability, is typical. The complex movement disorder, characterized by ataxia, dystonia, and chorea, may occur in any combination and may be continuous, paroxysmal, or continual with fluctuations in severity influenced by environmental factors such as fasting or with infectious stress. Symptoms often improve substantially when a ketogenic diet is started.

Spastic paraplegia, optic atrophy, and neuropathy (SPOAN) is an autosomal recessive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by early-onset progressive spastic paraplegia resulting in loss of independent ambulation in the teenage years. Additional features include optic atrophy, later onset of sensorimotor peripheral neuropathy, and progressive joint contractures; cognition remains intact (summary by Melo et al., 2015).

Spastic paraplegia-29 (SPG28) is an autosomal recessive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by early-onset, slowly progressive lower-limb spasticity resulting in walking difficulties. Some patients also have distal sensory impairment (summary by Tesson et al., 2012). For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of autosomal recessive spastic paraplegia, see 270800.

SPG26 is an autosomal recessive form of complicated spastic paraplegia characterized by onset in the first 2 decades of life of gait abnormalities due to lower limb spasticity and muscle weakness. Some patients have upper limb involvement. Additional features include intellectual disability, peripheral neuropathy, dysarthria, cerebellar signs, extrapyramidal signs, and cortical atrophy. The disorder is slowly progressive (summary by Boukhris et al., 2013). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of autosomal recessive SPG, see SPG5A (270800).

A rare pure or complex hereditary spastic paraplegia with characteristics of variable onset of slowly progressive lower limb spasticity, hyperreflexia and extensor plantar responses, that may be associated with sensorimotor polyneuropathy, decreased vibration sense, lower limb distal muscle wasting, dysarthria and mild to moderate intellectual disability.

A form of hereditary spastic paraplegia which usually presents in late adolescence or early adulthood as a pure phenotype of lower limb spasticity with hyperreflexia and extensor plantar responses, as well as mild bladder disturbances and pes cavus. Rarely, it can present as a complex phenotype with additional manifestations including epilepsy, variable peripheral neuropathy and/or memory impairment. Caused by mutations in the NIPA1 gene (15q11.2) encoding the magnesium transporter NIPA1.

PLP1 disorders of central nervous system myelin formation include a range of phenotypes from Pelizaeus-Merzbacher disease (PMD) to spastic paraplegia 2 (SPG2). PMD typically manifests in infancy or early childhood with nystagmus, hypotonia, and cognitive impairment; the findings progress to severe spasticity and ataxia. Life span is shortened. SPG2 manifests as spastic paraparesis with or without CNS involvement and usually normal life span. Intrafamilial variation of phenotypes can be observed, but the signs are usually fairly consistent within families. Heterozygous females may manifest mild-to-moderate signs of the disease.

A very rare pure form of spastic paraplegia with characteristics of onset in infancy of lower limb spasticity associated with gait disturbances, scissor gait, tiptoe walking, clonus and increased deep tendon reflexes. Mild upper limb involvement may occasionally also be associated.

Spastic paraplegias (SPGs) are a genetically heterogeneous group of neurologic disorders characterized by progressive weakness and spasticity of the legs. Complicated SPGs are accompanied by additional neurologic symptoms such as cerebellar ataxia, sensory loss, mental retardation, nystagmus, and optic atrophy (summary by Steinmuller et al., 1997). A locus for spastic paraplegia-16 has been mapped to Xq11.2-q23 (Steinmuller et al., 1997). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of X-linked spastic paraplegia, see 303350.

Spastic paraplegia 7 (SPG7) is characterized by insidiously progressive bilateral leg weakness and spasticity. Most affected individuals have decreased vibration sense and cerebellar signs. Onset is mostly in adulthood, although symptoms may start as early as age 11 years and as late as age 72 years. Additional features including ataxia (gait and limbs), spastic dysarthria, dysphagia, pale optic disks, ataxia, nystagmus, strabismus, ptosis, hearing loss, motor and sensory neuropathy, amyotrophy, scoliosis, pes cavus, and urinary sphincter disturbances may be observed.

A pure form of hereditary spastic paraplegia with characteristics of a slowly progressive and relatively benign spastic paraplegia presenting in adulthood with spastic gait, lower limb hyperreflexia, extensor plantar responses, bladder dysfunction (urinary urgency and/or incontinence), and mild sensory and motor peripheral neuropathy.

Kufor-Rakeb syndrome is a rare autosomal recessive form of juvenile-onset atypical Parkinson disease (PARK9) associated with supranuclear gaze palsy, spasticity, and dementia. Some patients have neuroradiologic evidence of iron deposition in the basal ganglia, indicating that the pathogenesis of PARK9 can be considered among the syndromes of neurodegeneration with brain iron accumulation (NBIA; see 234200) (summary by Bruggemann et al., 2010). For a phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of Parkinson disease (PD), see 168600. Biallelic mutation in the ATP13A2 gene also causes autosomal recessive spastic paraplegia-78 (SPG78; 617225), an adult-onset neurodegenerative disorder with overlapping features. Patients with SPG78 have later onset and prominent spasticity, but rarely parkinsonism. Loss of ATP13A2 function results in a multidimensional spectrum of neurologic features reflecting various regions of the brain and nervous system, including cortical, pyramidal, extrapyramidal, brainstem, cerebellar, and peripheral (summary by Estrada-Cuzcano et al., 2017).

A syndrome with characteristics of immune deficiency and neurological disorders in females and neonatal death in males. The syndrome has been described in only one family with nine affected individuals (five males and four females) spanning two generations. Symptomatic females present slowly progressive proximal muscle weakness, leg hyperreflexia, pes cavus, increased muscle tone in the legs, poor bladder function, static reduced night vision and frequent sinopulmonary infections associated with IgG2 deficiency. Males present with low birth weight and severe hypotonia that leads to death in the neonatal period. The gene locus has been mapped to Xq26-qter.

PNPLA6 disorders span a phenotypic continuum characterized by variable combinations of cerebellar ataxia; upper motor neuron involvement manifesting as spasticity and/or brisk reflexes; chorioretinal dystrophy associated with variable degrees of reduced visual function; and hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (delayed puberty and lack of secondary sex characteristics). The hypogonadotropic hypogonadism occurs either in isolation or as part of anterior hypopituitarism (growth hormone, thyroid hormone, or gonadotropin deficiencies). Common but less frequent features are peripheral neuropathy (usually of axonal type manifesting as reduced distal reflexes, diminished vibratory sensation, and/or distal muscle wasting); hair anomalies (long eyelashes, bushy eyebrows, or scalp alopecia); short stature; and impaired cognitive functioning (learning disabilities in children; deficits in attention, visuospatial abilities, and recall in adults). Some of these features can occur in distinct clusters on the phenotypic continuum: Boucher-Neuhäuser syndrome (cerebellar ataxia, chorioretinal dystrophy, and hypogonadotropic hypogonadism); Gordon Holmes syndrome (cerebellar ataxia, hypogonadotropic hypogonadism, and – to a variable degree – brisk reflexes); Oliver-McFarlane syndrome (trichomegaly, chorioretinal dystrophy, short stature, intellectual disability, and hypopituitarism); Laurence-Moon syndrome; and spastic paraplegia type 39 (SPG39) (upper motor neuron involvement, peripheral neuropathy, and sometimes reduced cognitive functioning and/or cerebellar ataxia).

Spastic paraplegia-glaucoma-intellectual disability syndrome is characterized by progressive spastic paraplegia, glaucoma and intellectual deficit. It has been described in two families. The second described sibship was born to consanguineous parents. The mode of inheritance is autosomal recessive.

Spastic paraplegia-5A (SPG5A) is an autosomal recessive neurologic disorder with a wide phenotypic spectrum. Some patients have pure spastic paraplegia affecting only gait, whereas others may have a complicated phenotype with additional manifestations, including optic atrophy or cerebellar ataxia (summary by Arnoldi et al., 2012). The hereditary spastic paraplegias (SPG) are a group of clinically and genetically diverse disorders characterized by progressive, usually severe, lower extremity spasticity; see reviews of Fink et al. (1996) and Fink (1997). Inheritance is most often autosomal dominant (see 182600), but X-linked (see 303350) and autosomal recessive forms also occur. Genetic Heterogeneity of Autosomal Recessive Spastic Paraplegia Autosomal recessive forms of SPG include SPG7 (607259), caused by mutation in the paraplegin gene (602783) on chromosome 16q24; SPG9B (616586), caused by mutation in the ALDH18A1 gene (138250) on 10q24; SPG11 (604360), caused by mutation in the spatacsin gene (610844) on 15q21; SPG15 (270700), caused by mutation in the ZFYVE26 gene (612012) on 14q24; SPG18 (611225), caused by mutation in the ERLIN2 gene (611605) on 8p11; SPG20 (275900), caused by mutation in the spartin gene (607111) on 13q12; SPG21 (248900), caused by mutation in the maspardin gene (608181) on 15q21; SPG26 (609195), caused by mutation in the B4GALNT1 gene (601873) on 12q13; SPG28 (609340), caused by mutation in the DDHD1 gene (614603) on 14q22; SPG30 (610357), caused by mutation in the KIF1A gene (601255) on 2q37; SPG35 (612319), caused by mutation in the FA2H gene (611026) on 16q23; SPG39 (612020), caused by mutation in the PNPLA6 gene (603197) on 19p13; SPG43 (615043), caused by mutation in the C19ORF12 gene (614297) on 19q12; SPG44 (613206), caused by mutation in the GJC2 gene (608803) on 1q42; SPG45 (613162), caused by mutation in the NT5C2 gene (600417) on 10q24; SPG46 (614409), caused by mutation in the GBA2 gene (609471) on 9p13; SPG48 (613647), caused by mutation in the KIAA0415 gene (613653) on 7p22; SPG50 (612936), caused by mutation in the AP4M1 gene (602296) on 7q22; SPG51 (613744), caused by mutation in the AP4E1 gene (607244) on 15q21; SPG52 (614067), caused by mutation in the AP4S1 gene (607243) on 14q12; SPG53 (614898), caused by mutation in the VPS37A gene (609927) on 8p22; SPG54 (615033), caused by mutation in the DDHD2 gene (615003) on 8p11; SPG55 (615035), caused by mutation in the MTRFR gene on 12q24; SPG56 (615030), caused by mutation in the CYP2U1 gene (610670) on 4q25; SPG57 (615658), caused by mutation in the TFG gene (602498) on 3q12; SPG61 (615685), caused by mutation in the ARL6IP1 gene (607669) on 1p12; SPG62 (615681), caused by mutation in the ERLIN1 gene on 10q24; SPG63 (615686), caused by mutation in the AMPD2 gene (102771) on 1p13; SPG64 (615683), caused by mutation in the ENTPD1 gene (601752) on 10q24; SPG72 (615625), caused by mutation in the REEP2 gene (609347) on 5q31; SPG74 (616451), caused by mutation in the IBA57 gene (615316) on 1q42; SPG75 (616680), caused by mutation in the MAG gene (159460) on 19q13; SPG76 (616907), caused by mutation in the CAPN1 gene (114220) on 11q13; SPG77 (617046), caused by mutation in the FARS2 gene (611592) on 6p25; SPG78 (617225), caused by mutation in the ATP13A2 gene (610513) on 1p36; SPG79 (615491), caused by mutation in the UCHL1 gene (191342) on 4p13; SPG81 (618768), caused by mutation in the SELENOI gene (607915) on 2p23; SPG82 (618770), caused by mutation in the PCYT2 gene (602679) on 17q25; SPG83 (619027), caused by mutation in the HPDL gene (618994) on 1p34; SPG84 (619621), caused by mutation in the PI4KA gene (600286) on 22q11; SPG85 (619686), caused by mutation in the RNF170 gene (614649) on 8p11; SPG86 (619735), caused by mutation in the ABHD16A gene (142620) on 6p21; SPG87 (619966), caused by mutation in the TMEM63C gene (619953) on 14q24; SPG89 (620379), caused by mutation in the AMFR gene (603243) on 16q13; SPG90B (620417), caused by mutation in the SPTSSA gene (613540) on 14q13; SPG92 (620911), caused by mutation in the FICD gene (620875) on chromosome 12q23; and SPG93 (620938), caused by mutation in the NFU1 gene (608100) on chromosome 2p13. Additional autosomal recessive forms of SPG have been mapped to chromosomes 3q (SPG14; 605229), 13q14 (SPG24; 607584), 6q (SPG25; 608220), and 10q22 (SPG27; 609041). A disorder that was formerly designated SPG49 has been reclassified as hereditary sensory and autonomic neuropathy-9 with developmental delay (HSAN9; 615031).

Spastic paraplegia 15 (SPG15), typically an early-onset complex hereditary spastic paraplegia, is characterized by progressive spasticity that begins in the lower extremities and is associated with several manifestations resulting from central and peripheral nervous system dysfunction. While onset of spasticity is typically in mid- to late childhood or adolescence (i.e., between ages 5 and 18 years), other manifestations, such as developmental delay or learning disability, may be present earlier, often preceding motor involvement. Individuals with adult onset have also been reported.

Most individuals with classic GBE1 adult polyglucosan body disease (GBE1-APBD) present after age 40 years with unexplained progressive neurogenic bladder, gait difficulties (i.e., spasticity and weakness) from mixed upper and lower motor neuron involvement, sensory loss predominantly in the distal lower extremities, autonomic dysfunction (associated with orthostatic hypotension and constipation), and mild cognitive difficulties (often executive dysfunction). Some affected individuals without classic GBE1-APBD have atypical phenotypes including Alzheimer disease-like dementia and axonal neuropathy, stroke-like episodes, and diaphragmatic failure; others may have a history of infantile liver disease.

GAN-related neurodegeneration comprises a phenotypic continuum ranging from severe (sometimes called classic giant axonal neuropathy) to milder pure early-onset peripheral motor and sensory neuropathies. The classic giant axonal neuropathy phenotype typically manifests as an infantile-onset neurodegenerative disorder, starting as a severe peripheral motor and sensory neuropathy and evolving into central nervous system impairment (intellectual disability, seizures, cerebellar signs, and pyramidal tract signs). Most affected individuals become wheelchair dependent in the second decade of life and eventually bedridden with severe polyneuropathy, ataxia, and dementia. Death usually occurs in the third decade. At the milder end of the spectrum are predominantly motor and sensory neuropathies (with little to no CNS involvement) that overlap with the axonal form of Charcot-Marie-Tooth neuropathies.

This syndrome is characterized by the association of an axonal sensory and autonomic neuropathy with spastic paraplegia.

Spastic paraplegia-31 (SPG31) is an autosomal dominant neurologic disorder characterized primarily by spasticity of the lower limbs, resulting in gait abnormalities and muscle weakness. There is a bimodal age at onset with a peak in the second and fourth decades of life. Most affected individuals have a 'pure' form of the disorder with gait difficulties and hyperreflexia of the lower limbs. However, there is phenotypic heterogeneity, and some patients have a 'complex' form of the disorder with additional signs and symptoms, such as peripheral neuropathy, cerebellar ataxia, postural tremor, or urinary symptoms. The disorder is slowly progressive, and there is intrafamilial variability and incomplete penetrance (summary by Goizet et al., 2011 and Toft et al., 2019). For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of autosomal dominant spastic paraplegia, see SPG3A (182600).

Any hereditary spastic paraplegia in which the cause of the disease is a mutation in the ZFYVE27 gene.

A rare hereditary spastic paraplegia with characteristics of progressive spastic paraplegia with pyramidal signs in the lower limbs, decreased vibration sense, and increased reflexes in the upper limbs. Caused by heterozygous mutation in the HSPD1 on chromosome 2q33.

A rare complex hereditary spastic paraplegia with characteristics of adulthood onset of slowly progressive spastic paraplegia of lower limbs presenting with spastic gait, hyperreflexia and mild lower limb hypertonicity associated with mild intellectual disability, visual agnosia, short and long-term memory deficiency and mild distal motor neuropathy. Bilateral pes cavus and extensor plantar responses are also associated.

Mast syndrome (MASTS) is an autosomal recessive complicated form of hereditary spastic paraplegia in which progressive spastic paraparesis is associated in more advanced cases with cognitive decline, dementia, and other neurologic abnormalities. Symptom onset usually occurs in adulthood, and the disorder is progressive with variable severity. Brain imaging shows thinning of the corpus callosum. The disorder occurs with high frequency in the Old Order Amish (summary by Simpson et al., 2003). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of autosomal recessive spastic paraplegia, see SPG5A (270800).

Intellectual disability-spasticity-ectrodactyly syndrome is a rare intellectual disability syndrome characterized by severe intellectual disability, spastic paraplegia (with wasting of the lower limbs) and distal transverse defects of the limbs (e.g. ectrodactyly, syndactyly, clinodactyly of the hands and/or feet).

Pyruvate dehydrogenase deficiency is characterized by the buildup of a chemical called lactic acid in the body and a variety of neurological problems. Signs and symptoms of this condition usually first appear shortly after birth, and they can vary widely among affected individuals. The most common feature is a potentially life-threatening buildup of lactic acid (lactic acidosis), which can cause nausea, vomiting, severe breathing problems, and an abnormal heartbeat. People with pyruvate dehydrogenase deficiency usually have neurological problems as well. Most have delayed development of mental abilities and motor skills such as sitting and walking. Other neurological problems can include intellectual disability, seizures, weak muscle tone (hypotonia), poor coordination, and difficulty walking. Some affected individuals have abnormal brain structures, such as underdevelopment of the tissue connecting the left and right halves of the brain (corpus callosum), wasting away (atrophy) of the exterior part of the brain known as the cerebral cortex, or patches of damaged tissue (lesions) on some parts of the brain. Because of the severe health effects, many individuals with pyruvate dehydrogenase deficiency do not survive past childhood, although some may live into adolescence or adulthood.

A complex form of hereditary spastic paraplegia characterised by a spastic paraplegia presenting in adolescence, associated with the additional manifestations of sensorial hearing impairment due to auditory neuropathy and persistent vomiting due to a hiatal or paraoesophageal hernia. The phenotype has been mapped to a locus on chromosome 1p31.1-p21.1.

Spastic paraplegia-12 (SPG12) is an autosomal dominant neurodegenerative disorder characterized by lower limb spasticity and hyperreflexia, resulting in walking difficulties. Some patients may have urinary symptoms and distal sensory impairment. Age at onset ranges from childhood to adulthood (summary by Montenegro et al., 2012). For a general description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of autosomal dominant spastic paraplegia, see SPG3A (182600).

Spastic paraplegia 11 (SPG11) is characterized by progressive spasticity and weakness of the lower limbs frequently associated with the following: mild intellectual disability with learning difficulties in childhood and/or progressive cognitive decline; peripheral neuropathy; pseudobulbar involvement; and increased reflexes in the upper limbs. Less frequent findings include: cerebellar signs (ataxia, nystagmus, saccadic pursuit); retinal degeneration; pes cavus; scoliosis; and parkinsonism with characteristic brain MRI features that include thinning of the corpus callosum. Onset occurs mainly during infancy or adolescence (range: age 1-31 years) and in rare cases as late as age 60 years. Most affected individuals become wheelchair bound one or two decades after disease onset.

Spastic paraplegia-10 (SPG10) is an autosomal dominant neurologic disorder with variable manifestations. Some patients have onset of a 'pure' spastic paraplegia, with lower limb spasticity, hyperreflexia, extensor plantar responses, and variable involvement of the upper limbs beginning in childhood or young adulthood. Some patients show distal sensory impairment, which can be part of the 'pure' phenotype. However, some patients also show an axonal sensorimotor peripheral neuropathy with distal sensory impairment and distal muscle atrophy reminiscent of Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 2 (see, e.g., CMT2A, 118210). Rarely, patients with KIF5A mutations may have additional neurologic features, including parkinsonism or cognitive decline, consistent with a 'complicated' phenotype. Spastic paraplegia and peripheral neuropathy in isolation may represent extreme ends of the phenotypic spectrum of KIF5A mutations (summary by Goizet et al., 2009 and Crimella et al., 2012). For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of autosomal dominant spastic paraplegia, see SPG3A (182600).

Hereditary spastic paraplegia 8 (SPG8) is a slowly progressive pure spastic paraplegia of the lower limbs (i.e., pyramidal signs including hyperreflexia, spasticity, and occasionally clonus without other neurologic findings). Some affected individuals have urinary urgency that usually becomes apparent at the same time as the spasticity. Onset is between ages ten and 59 years. Affected individuals often become wheelchair dependent. While intra- and interfamilial phenotypic variability is high, SPG8 is typically more severe than other types of hereditary spastic paraplegia.

A complex form of hereditary spastic paraplegia characterized by spastic paraplegia, demyelinating peripheral sensorimotor neuropathy, poikiloderma (manifesting with loss of eyebrows and eyelashes in childhood in addition to delicate, smooth, and wasted skin) and distal amyotrophy (presenting after puberty). There have been no further descriptions in the literature since 1992.

Spastic paraplegia-nephritis-deafness syndrome is a complex form of hereditary spastic paraplegia characterized by progressive, variable spastic paraplegia associated with bilateral sensorineural deafness, intellectual disability, and progressive nephropathy. There have been no further descriptions in the literature since 1988.

Spastic paraplegia 4 (SPG4; also known as SPAST-HSP) is characterized by insidiously progressive bilateral lower-limb gait spasticity. More than 50% of affected individuals have some weakness in the legs and impaired vibration sense at the ankles. Sphincter disturbances are very common. Onset is insidious, mostly in young adulthood, although symptoms may start as early as age one year and as late as age 76 years. Intrafamilial variation is considerable.

A rare complex type of hereditary spastic paraplegia with characteristics of slowly progressive spastic paraplegia (with walking difficulties appearing at onset at 6-7 years of age) associated with mild intellectual disability. Brain imaging reveals thin corpus callosum, cortical and cerebellar atrophy, and pontine dysraphia. The SPG32 phenotype has been mapped to a locus on chromosome 14q12-q21.

Hereditary spastic ataxia comprises a heterogeneous group of progressive neurodegenerative disorders characterized by lower-limb spasticity and generalized ataxia with dysarthria, impaired ocular movements, and gait disturbance. Spastic ataxia-1 (SPAX1) is an autosomal dominant form of the disorder with onset between the ages of 10 and 20 years. Other clinical features are supranuclear gaze palsy, hyperreflexia, hypertonicity, dystonia, pes cavus, mild ptosis, and decreased vibration sense in the lower limbs. Symptom severity is variable, but neither life span nor cognition is affected (summary by Meijer et al., 2002 and Bourassa et al., 2012). Genetic Heterogeneity of Spastic Ataxia See also SPAX2 (611302), caused by mutation in the KIF1C gene (603060) on chromosome 17p13; SPAX3 (611390), caused by rearrangements of the MARS2 gene (609728) on chromosome 2q33; SPAX4 (613672), caused by mutation in the MTPAP gene (613669) on chromosome 10p11; SPAX5 (614487), caused by mutation in the AFG3L2 gene (604581) on chromosome 18p11; SPAX6 (270550), caused by mutation in the SACS gene (604490) on chromosome 13q12; SPAX7 (108650); SPAX8 (617560), caused by mutation in the NKX6-2 gene (605955) on chromosome 8q21; SPAX9 (618438), caused by mutation in the CHP1 gene (606988) on chromosome 15q15; and SPAX10 (620666), caused by mutation in the COQ4 gene (612898) on chromosome 9q34.

A pure form of hereditary spastic paraplegia with characteristics of slowly progressive spastic paraplegia of lower extremities with an age of onset ranging from childhood to adulthood and patients presenting with spastic gait, increased tendon reflexes in lower limbs, extensor plantar response, weakness and atrophy of lower limb muscles and, in rare cases, pes cavus. No abnormalities are noted on magnetic resonance imaging.

A complex hereditary spastic paraplegia with characteristics of mild to severe lower limbs spasticity, hyperreflexia, extensor plantar responses, pes cavus and significant wasting and weakness of the small hand muscles. Impaired vibration sensation, temporal lobe epilepsy and cognitive dysfunction were also reported.

Any leukodystrophy in which the cause of the disease is a mutation in the HSPD1 gene.

STXBP1 encephalopathy with epilepsy is characterized by early-onset encephalopathy with epilepsy (i.e., moderate-to-severe intellectual disability, refractory seizures, and ongoing epileptiform activity). The median age of onset of seizures is six weeks (range 1 day to 13 years). Seizure types can include infantile spasms; generalized tonic-clonic, clonic, or tonic seizures; and myoclonic, focal, atonic, and absence seizures. Epilepsy syndromes can include Ohtahara syndrome, West syndrome, Lennox-Gaustaut syndrome, and Dravet syndrome (not SCN1A-related), classic Rett syndrome (not MECP2-related), and atypical Rett syndrome (not CDKL5-related). The EEG is characterized by focal epileptic activity, burst suppression, hypsarrhythmia, or generalized spike-and-slow waves. Other findings can include abnormal tone, movement disorders (especially ataxia and dystonia), and behavior disorders (including autism spectrum disorder). Feeding difficulties are common.

A pure form of hereditary spastic paraplegia with late childhood to early adulthood-onset of slowly progressive spastic paraplegia with spastic gait and lower limb hyperreflexia, brisk tendon reflexes and ankle clonus. Lower limb pain and reduced lower limb vibratory sense is also reported in some older adult patients.

Spastic paraplegia-43 (SPG43) is an autosomal recessive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by childhood onset of progressive spasticity affecting the lower and upper limbs (summary by Meilleur et al., 2010). For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of autosomal recessive spastic paraplegia, see 270800.

This syndrome has characteristics of intellectual deficit, spasticity in the lower limbs (spastic paraplegia), pes cavus deformity of both feet, an abnormal gait, and palmar and plantar hyperkeratosis. It has been reported in four brothers. The mother of the affected boys had normal intelligence, plantar hyperkeratosis and a strong facial resemblance to her retarded sons. Her three daughters were normal. This syndrome most likely an X-linked recessive condition.

Spastic paraplegia-18B (SPG18B) is a severe autosomal recessive neurologic disorder characterized by onset in early childhood of progressive spastic paraplegia resulting in motor disability. Most affected individuals have severe psychomotor retardation. Some may develop significant joint contractures (summary by Alazami et al., 2011 and Yildirim et al., 2011).

A very rare, complex form of hereditary spastic paraplegia characterised by a late-onset, slowly progressive spastic paraplegia associated with mild ataxia and dysarthria, upper extremity involvement (i.e. loss of finger dexterity, dysmetria), and mild cognitive impairment, without the presence of nystagmus. A hypomyelinating leucodystrophy and thin corpus callosum is observed in all cases and psychomotor development is normal or near normal. Caused by mutations in the GJC2 gene (1q41-q42) encoding the gap junction gamma-2 protein.

Autosomal recessive spastic paraplegia-46 (SPG46) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by onset in childhood of slowly progressive spastic paraplegia and cerebellar signs. Some patients have cognitive impairment, cataracts, and cerebral, cerebellar, and corpus callosum atrophy on brain imaging (summary by Boukhris et al., 2010 and Martin et al., 2013). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of autosomal recessive spastic paraplegia, see SPG5A (270800).

The spectrum of BSCL2-related neurologic disorders includes Silver syndrome and variants of Charcot-Marie-Tooth neuropathy type 2, distal hereditary motor neuropathy (dHMN) type V, and spastic paraplegia 17. Features of these disorders include onset of symptoms ranging from the first to the seventh decade, slow disease progression, upper motor neuron involvement (gait disturbance with pyramidal signs ranging from mild to severe spasticity with hyperreflexia in the lower limbs and variable extensor plantar responses), lower motor neuron involvement (amyotrophy of the peroneal muscles and small muscles of the hand), and pes cavus and other foot deformities. Disease severity is variable among and within families.

Spastic paraplegia 3A (SPG3A; also known as ATL1-HSP) is characterized by progressive bilateral and mostly symmetric spasticity and weakness of the legs. Compared to other forms of autosomal dominant hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP), in which diminished vibration sense (caused by degeneration of the corticospinal tracts and dorsal columns) and urinary bladder hyperactivity are present in all affected individuals, these findings occur in a minority of individuals with SPG3A. The average age of onset is four years. More than 80% of reported individuals manifest spastic gait before the end of the first decade of life. Most persons with early-onset ATL1-HSP have a "pure" ("uncomplicated") HSP; however, complicated HSP with axonal motor neuropathy and/or distal amyotrophy with lower motor neuron involvement (Silver syndrome phenotype) has been observed. The rate of progression in ATL1-HSP is slow, and wheelchair dependency or need for a walking aid (cane, walker, or wheelchair) is relatively rare.

ALS2-related disorder involves retrograde degeneration of the upper motor neurons of the pyramidal tracts and comprises a clinical continuum of the following three phenotypes: Infantile ascending hereditary spastic paraplegia (IAHSP), characterized by onset of spasticity with increased reflexes and sustained clonus of the lower limbs within the first two years of life, progressive weakness and spasticity of the upper limbs by age seven to eight years, and wheelchair dependence in the second decade with progression toward severe spastic tetraparesis and a pseudobulbar syndrome caused by progressive cranial nerve involvement. Juvenile primary lateral sclerosis (JPLS), characterized by upper motor neuron findings of pseudobulbar palsy and spastic quadriplegia without dementia or cerebellar, extrapyramidal, or sensory signs. Juvenile amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (JALS or ALS2), characterized by onset between ages three and 20 years. All affected individuals show a spastic pseudobulbar syndrome (spasticity of speech and swallowing) together with spastic paraplegia. Some individuals are bedridden by age 12 to 50 years.

A rare complex type of hereditary spastic paraplegia with characteristics of adult-onset spastic paraplegia associated with spinal pain that radiates to the upper or lower limbs and is related to disk herniation (with minor spondylosis), as well as mild sensorimotor neuropathy. The phenotype has been mapped to a locus on chromosome 6q23-q24.1.

A complex form of hereditary spastic paraplegia, with onset in childhood or adulthood of progressive spastic paraplegia (with spastic gait, spasticity, lower limb weakness, pes cavus and urinary urgency) associated with the additional manifestation of peripheral sensorimotor neuropathy. The SPG36 phenotype has been mapped to a locus on chromosome 12q23-q24.

A pure form of hereditary spastic paraplegia with a childhood to adulthood-onset of slowly progressive spastic gait, extensor plantar responses, brisk tendon reflexes in arms and legs, decreased vibration sense at ankles and urinary dysfunction. Ankle clonus is also reported in some patients.

Spastic paraplegia-48 (SPG48) is an autosomal recessive neurologic disorder characterized by spasticity of the lower limbs resulting in gait difficulties. Most patients have onset in mid- or late-adulthood, although childhood onset has been reported in 1 patient. Additional features may include parkinsonism, urinary incontinence, neuropathy, and mild cognitive impairment (summary by Hirst et al., 2015). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of autosomal recessive SPG, see SPG5A (270800).

AP-4-associated hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP), also known as AP-4 deficiency syndrome, is a group of neurodegenerative disorders characterized by a progressive, complex spastic paraplegia with onset typically in infancy or early childhood. Early-onset hypotonia evolves into progressive lower-extremity spasticity. The majority of children become nonambulatory and usually wheelchair bound. Over time spasticity progresses to involve the upper extremities, resulting in a spastic tetraplegia. Associated complications include dysphagia, contractures, foot deformities, dysregulation of bladder and bowel function, and a pseudobulbar affect. About 50% of affected individuals have seizures. Postnatal microcephaly (usually in the -2SD to -3SD range) is common. All have developmental delay. Speech development is significantly impaired and many affected individuals remain nonverbal. Intellectual disability in older children is usually moderate to severe.

AP-4-associated hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP), also known as AP-4 deficiency syndrome, is a group of neurodegenerative disorders characterized by a progressive, complex spastic paraplegia with onset typically in infancy or early childhood. Early-onset hypotonia evolves into progressive lower-extremity spasticity. The majority of children become nonambulatory and usually wheelchair bound. Over time spasticity progresses to involve the upper extremities, resulting in a spastic tetraplegia. Associated complications include dysphagia, contractures, foot deformities, dysregulation of bladder and bowel function, and a pseudobulbar affect. About 50% of affected individuals have seizures. Postnatal microcephaly (usually in the -2SD to -3SD range) is common. All have developmental delay. Speech development is significantly impaired and many affected individuals remain nonverbal. Intellectual disability in older children is usually moderate to severe.

AP-4-associated hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP), also known as AP-4 deficiency syndrome, is a group of neurodegenerative disorders characterized by a progressive, complex spastic paraplegia with onset typically in infancy or early childhood. Early-onset hypotonia evolves into progressive lower-extremity spasticity. The majority of children become nonambulatory and usually wheelchair bound. Over time spasticity progresses to involve the upper extremities, resulting in a spastic tetraplegia. Associated complications include dysphagia, contractures, foot deformities, dysregulation of bladder and bowel function, and a pseudobulbar affect. About 50% of affected individuals have seizures. Postnatal microcephaly (usually in the -2SD to -3SD range) is common. All have developmental delay. Speech development is significantly impaired and many affected individuals remain nonverbal. Intellectual disability in older children is usually moderate to severe.

Most characteristically, Aicardi-Goutières syndrome (AGS) manifests as an early-onset encephalopathy that usually, but not always, results in severe intellectual and physical disability. A subgroup of infants with AGS present at birth with abnormal neurologic findings, hepatosplenomegaly, elevated liver enzymes, and thrombocytopenia, a picture highly suggestive of congenital infection. Otherwise, most affected infants present at variable times after the first few weeks of life, frequently after a period of apparently normal development. Typically, they demonstrate the subacute onset of a severe encephalopathy characterized by extreme irritability, intermittent sterile pyrexias, loss of skills, and slowing of head growth. Over time, as many as 40% develop chilblain skin lesions on the fingers, toes, and ears. It is becoming apparent that atypical, sometimes milder, cases of AGS exist, and thus the true extent of the phenotype associated with pathogenic variants in the AGS-related genes is not yet known.

Fatty acid hydroxylase-associated neurodegeneration (FAHN) is characterized early in the disease course by central nervous system involvement including corticospinal tract involvement (spasticity), mixed movement disorder (ataxia/dystonia), and eye findings (optic atrophy, oculomotor abnormalities), and later in the disease course by progressive intellectual impairment and seizures. With disease progression, dystonia and spasticity compromise the ability to ambulate, leading to wheelchair dependence. Life expectancy is variable. FAHN is considered to be a subtype of neurodegeneration with brain iron accumulation (NBIA).

SPG53 is an autosomal recessive neurologic disorder characterized by onset in infancy of delayed motor development progressing to upper and lower limb spasticity with impaired walking. Affected individuals also show mild to moderate cognitive impairment (summary by Zivony-Elboum et al., 2012).

Spastic paraplegia-54 (SPG54) is a complicated form of spastic paraplegia, a neurodegenerative disorder affecting fibers of the corticospinal tract. Affected individuals have delayed psychomotor development, intellectual disability, and early-onset spasticity of the lower limbs. Brain MRI shows a thin corpus callosum and periventricular white matter lesions. Brain magnetic resonance spectroscopy shows an abnormal lipid peak (summary by Schuurs-Hoeijmakers et al., 2012). For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of autosomal recessive spastic paraplegia, see 270800.

A rare complex type of hereditary spastic paraplegia with characteristics of childhood onset of progressive spastic paraplegia associated with optic atrophy (with reduced visual acuity and central scotoma), ophthalmoplegia, reduced upper-extremity strength and dexterity, muscular atrophy in the lower extremities and sensorimotor neuropathy. Caused by mutations in the C12ORF65 gene (12q24.31) encoding probable peptide chain release factor C12ORF65, mitochondrial.

Spastic paraplegia-56 with or without pseudoxanthoma elasticum (SPG56) is an autosomal recessive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by early-onset progressive lower-limb spasticity resulting in walking difficulties. Upper limbs are often also affected, and some patients may have a subclinical axonal neuropathy (summary by Tesson et al., 2012). Some patients also have pseudoxanthoma elasticum (Legrand et al., 2021). For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of autosomal recessive spastic paraplegia, see 270800.

TECPR2-related hereditary sensory and autonomic neuropathy with intellectual disability (TECPR2-HSAN with ID) is characterized by developmental delay and subsequent intellectual disability, behavioral abnormalities, neurologic manifestations (muscular hypotonia, sensory neuropathy with lower-limb hypo- or areflexia and ataxic gait), and autonomic dysfunction (including central hypoventilation and apnea, gastrointestinal dysmotility, dysphagia, and gastroesophageal reflux disease with recurrent aspiration). To date, more than 30 individuals with TECPR2-HSAN with ID have been identified.

Pontocerebellar hypoplasia type 7 (PCH7) is a severe neurologic condition characterized by delayed psychomotor development, hypotonia, breathing abnormalities, and gonadal abnormalities (summary by Anderson et al., 2011). For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of PCH, see PCH1 (607596).

Lissencephaly-5 (LIS5) is an autosomal recessive brain malformation characterized by cobblestone changes in the cortex, more severe in the posterior region, and subcortical band heterotopia. Affected individuals have hydrocephalus, seizures, and severely delayed psychomotor development (Radmanesh et al., 2013). For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of lissencephaly, see LIS1 (607432).

An extremely rare, complex type of hereditary spastic paraplegia, with onset in infancy of pronounced leg spasticity (leading to the inability to walk independently), reduced visual acuity due to optic atrophy and distal wasting of the hands and feet due to an axonal demyelinating sensorimotor neuropathy. Caused by mutations in the TFG gene (3q12.2) encoding protein TFG, which is thought to play a role in ER microtubular architecture and function.

Spastic paraplegia-79B (SPG79B) is an autosomal recessive progressive neurologic disorder characterized by onset of spastic paraplegia and optic atrophy in the first decade of life. Additional features are variable, but may include peripheral neuropathy, cerebellar ataxia, and cognitive impairment (summary by Rydning et al., 2017). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of autosomal recessive spastic paraplegia, see SPG5A (270800).

Spastic paraplegia-64 (SPG64) is a neurologic disorder characterized by childhood onset of progressive spastic paraplegia with impaired intellectual development, gait impairment, dysarthria, and white matter abnormalities on brain imaging. Some individuals show neurocognitive regression (Calame et al., 2022). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of autosomal recessive SPG, see SPG5A (270800).

Autosomal recessive spastic paraplegia-61 (SPG61) is a complicated, early-onset spastic paraplegia (summary by Chukhrova et al., 2019).

An extremely rare and complex form of hereditary spastic paraplegia with characteristics of onset in infancy of spastic paraplegia (presenting with delayed walking and a scissors gait) associated with short stature and normal cognition. Periventricular deep white matter changes in the corpus callosum are noted on brain imaging. SPG63 is caused by a homozygous mutation in the AMPD2 gene (1p13.3) encoding AMP deaminase 2.

A pure form of hereditary spastic paraplegia with onset in adolescence or early adulthood of slowly progressive spastic paraplegia, proximal muscle weakness of the lower extremities and small hand muscles, hyperreflexia, spastic gait and mild urinary compromise.

A rare pure or complex form of hereditary spastic paraplegia with characteristics of onset in infancy of progressive lower limb spasticity, abnormal gait, increased deep tendon reflexes and extensor plantar responses that may be associated with intellectual disability. Additional signs such as contractures in the lower limbs, amyotrophy, clubfoot and optic atrophy, have also been reported. Caused by homozygous mutation in the NT5C2 gene on chromosome 10q24.

Spastic paraplegia, intellectual disability, nystagmus, and obesity (SINO) is an autosomal dominant neurologic disorder characterized by rapid growth in infancy, global developmental delay, spastic paraplegia, variable ophthalmologic defects, and dysmorphic facial features (summary by Josifova et al., 2016).

El-Hattab-Alkuraya syndrome is characterized by microcephaly (often early onset and progressive); severe-to-profound developmental delay; refractory and early-onset seizures; spastic quadriplegia with axial hypotonia; and growth deficiency with poor weight gain and short stature. Characteristic findings on brain imaging include cerebral atrophy that is disproportionately most prominent in the frontal lobes; ex vacuo ventricular dilatation with notable posterior horn predominance; brain stem volume loss with flattening of the belly of the pons; and symmetric under-opercularization. Neurologic involvement is progressive, with significant morbidity and mortality.

Spastic paraplegia-80 (SPG80) is an autosomal dominant juvenile-onset neurologic disorder characterized by onset of progressive spasticity and hyperreflexia affecting mainly the lower limbs and resulting in difficulty walking or loss of independent ambulation, sometimes as early as the second decade. Some patients may have cerebellar signs and mild cognitive impairment, but most have a pure form of the disorder (summary by Farazi Fard et al., 2019). For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of autosomal dominant spastic paraplegia, see SPG3A (182600).

Ichthyotic keratoderma, spasticity, hypomyelination, and dysmorphic features (IKSHD) is characterized by epidermal hyperproliferation and increased keratinization, resulting in ichthyosis; hypomyelination of central white matter, causing spastic paraplegia and central nystagmus; and optic atrophy, resulting in reduction of peripheral vision and visual acuity (Mueller et al., 2019). In addition, patients exhibit mild facial dysmorphism (Kutkowska-Kazmierczak et al., 2018).

Spastic paraplegia-30A (SPG30A) is a neurologic disorder characterized by onset of slowly progressive spastic paraplegia in the first or second decades of life. Affected individuals have unsteady spastic gait and hyperreflexia of the lower limbs. Most patients have a 'pure' form of the disorder, limited to spastic paraplegia, whereas some may have a 'complicated' form that includes mild cognitive dysfunction, learning disabilities, or behavioral abnormalities, peripheral axonal sensorimotor neuropathy, and urinary sphincter problems. The phenotypic features represent a spectrum of abnormalities of the central, peripheral, and autonomic nervous system (summary by Pennings et al., 2020). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of autosomal dominant spastic paraplegia, see SPG3A (182600).

Neurodevelopmental disorder with progressive spasticity and brain white matter abnormalities (NEDSWMA) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by impaired psychomotor development apparent in infancy. Affected individuals show poor overall growth, progressive microcephaly, and axial hypotonia, with later onset of spasticity. The disorder is progressive. Some patients show normal early development, but later have regression of motor, cognitive, and language skills. More variable features include seizures, joint contractures, ocular disturbances, episodic respiratory failure, and nonspecific dysmorphic facial features. The intellectual impairment is variable, ranging from poor visual contact with inability to walk or speak to milder intellectual disability with the ability to say some words. Brain imaging shows variable white matter abnormalities, including thin corpus callosum and poor myelination (summary by Husain et al., 2020).

Autosomal recessive spastic paraplegia-83 (SPG83) is a neurologic disorder characterized by progressive lower limb spasticity resulting in gait instability. Patients develop symptoms in the second decade, consistent with juvenile onset. Some patients may have myalgia or mild dysarthria, but the phenotype is considered to be a pure type of SPG with no additional neurologic abnormalities (summary by Husain et al., 2020). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of autosomal recessive spastic paraplegia, see SPG5A (270800).

PI4KA-related disorder is a clinically variable disorder characterized primarily by neurologic dysfunction (limb spasticity, developmental delay, intellectual disability, seizures, ataxia, nystagmus), gastrointestinal manifestations (multiple intestinal atresia, inflammatory bowel disease), and combined immunodeficiency (leukopenia, variable immunoglobulin defects). Age of onset is typically antenatal or in early childhood; individuals can present with any combination of these features. Rare individuals present with later-onset hereditary spastic paraplegia. Brain MRI findings can include hypomyelinating leukodystrophy, cerebellar hypoplasia/atrophy, thin or dysplastic corpus callosum, and/or perisylvian polymicrogyria.

Early-onset dystonia and/or spastic paraplegia (DYTSPG) is an autosomal dominant neurologic movement disorder characterized by phenotypic variability, even within the same family. Some patients have onset of progressive focal and generalized dystonia in the first decade, as young as infancy, whereas others develop progressive spastic paraplegia as adults, suggesting that age affects the phenotype. Some patients have manifestations of both disorders. Most patients have ambulation difficulties (Gilbert et al., 2009). Rare patients may show hypotonia and neurodevelopmental delay (Zech et al., 2022).

Autosomal recessive spastic paraplegia-85 (SPG85) is a neurologic disorder characterized by the onset of motor symptoms in the first few years of life. Affected individuals have spasticity and hyperreflexia of the lower limbs resulting in gait abnormalities. Older patients may have upper limb involvement and demonstrate axonal polyneuropathy. Additional features include optic atrophy, dysarthria, dysphagia, ataxia, and urinary incontinence. Brain imaging may show cerebellar atrophy (summary by Wagner et al., 2019). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of autosomal recessive spastic paraplegia, see SPG5A (270800).

Hypomyelinating leukodystrophy-23 with ataxia, deafness, liver dysfunction, and dilated cardiomyopathy (HLD23) is an autosomal recessive neurodegenerative disorder with systemic manifestations. Affected individuals show delayed motor development and ataxic gait in early childhood that progresses to spastic paraplegia with loss of ambulation in the first decades of life. Additional features include progressive sensorineural hearing loss resulting in deafness, hepatic dysfunction with elevated liver enzymes, and dilated cardiomyopathy that ultimately results in death in the first or second decades. Brain imaging shows hypomyelination, diffuse white matter abnormalities consistent with leukodystrophy, and thin corpus callosum (summary by Sferra et al., 2021). For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of HLD, see 312080.

Spastic paraplegia-76 is an autosomal recessive neurologic disorder characterized by young-adult onset of slowly progressive spasticity of the lower limbs resulting in gait difficulties. Most affected individuals have upper limb involvement and additional features such as foot deformities and dysarthria. Cognition is unaffected (summary by Gan-Or et al., 2016). For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of autosomal recessive spastic paraplegia, see SPG5A (270800).

Autosomal recessive spastic paraplegia-78 is an adult-onset neurodegenerative disorder characterized predominantly by spasticity and muscle weakness of the lower limbs, resulting in gait difficulties and loss of ambulation in some patients. Affected individuals also have cerebellar signs, such as dysarthria, oculomotor disturbances, and limb and gait ataxia; brain imaging shows cerebellar atrophy. Some patients may have mild cognitive impairment or frank dementia. The phenotype is highly variable (summary by Estrada-Cuzcano et al., 2017). Biallelic mutation in the ATP13A2 gene also causes Kufor-Rakeb syndrome (KRS; 606693), a neurodegenerative disorder with overlapping features. Patients with KRS have earlier onset and prominent parkinsonism. Loss of ATP13A2 function results in a multidimensional spectrum of neurologic features reflecting various regions of the brain and nervous system, including cortical, pyramidal, extrapyramidal, brainstem, cerebellar, and peripheral (summary by Estrada-Cuzcano et al., 2017).

Spastic paraplegia-74 (SPG74) is an autosomal recessive neurologic disorder characterized by onset of slowly progressive lower limb spasticity, optic atrophy, and peripheral neuropathy in the first decade (summary by Lossos et al., 2015). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of autosomal recessive spastic paraplegia, see SPG5A (270800).

Autosomal dominant spastic paraplegia-9A is a neurologic disorder characterized by onset of slowly progressive spasticity mainly affecting the lower limbs. The age at onset usually ranges from adolescence to adulthood, and patients have gait difficulties, motor neuropathy, and dysarthria. Additional variable features include cerebellar signs, cataract, pes cavus, and urinary urgency (summary by Coutelier et al., 2015). For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of autosomal dominant spastic paraplegia, see SPG3A (182600).

Autosomal recessive SPG9B is a neurologic disorder characterized by early-onset complex spastic paraplegia. Affected individuals had delayed psychomotor development, intellectual disability, and severe motor impairment. More variable features include dysmorphic facial features, tremor, and urinary incontinence (summary by Coutelier et al., 2015). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of autosomal recessive SPG, see SPG5A (270800).

A pure form of hereditary spastic paraplegia with characteristics of adult onset of crural spastic paraparesis, hyperreflexia, extensor plantar responses, proximal muscle weakness, mild muscle atrophy, decreased vibration sensation at ankles and mild urinary dysfunction. Foot deformities have been reported to eventually occur in some patients. No abnormalities are noted on brain magnetic resonance imaging and peripheral nerve conduction velocity studies.

The spectrum of FARS2 deficiency ranges from the infantile-onset phenotype, characterized by epileptic encephalopathy with lactic acidosis and poor prognosis (70% of affected individuals), to the later-onset phenotype, characterized by spastic paraplegia, less severe neurologic manifestations, and longer survival (30% of affected individuals). To date FARS2 deficiency has been reported in 37 individuals from 25 families. Infantile-onset phenotype. Seizures are difficult to control and may progress quickly at an early age to intractable seizures with frequent status epilepticus; some children have hypsarrhythmia on EEG. All have developmental delay; most are nonverbal and unable to walk. Feeding difficulties are common. More than half of affected children die in early childhood. Later-onset phenotype. All affected individuals have spastic paraplegia manifested by weakness, spasticity, and exaggerated reflexes of the lower extremities associated with walking difficulties; some have developmental delay/intellectual disability; some have brief seizures that resolve over time.

Autosomal recessive spastic paraplegia-86 (SPG86) is a complex neurologic disorder characterized by global developmental delay apparent from early childhood combined with early-onset progressive spasticity mainly affecting the lower limbs, but also affecting the upper limbs. Affected individuals have hyperreflexia, extensor plantar responses, pyramidal signs, and difficulty walking or inability to walk. Some may have joint contractures and foot or ankle deformities. Patients with SPG86 have impaired intellectual development with poor or absent speech, often with behavioral abnormalities. Brain imaging shows thin corpus callosum and white matter abnormalities. Rare patients may have seizures. The disorder is thus a complicated form of SPG (summary by Yahia et al., 2021, Miyake et al., 2022). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of autosomal recessive spastic paraplegia, see SPG5A (270800).

Autosomal recessive spastic paraplegia-89 (SPG89) is characterized by symptom onset in the first years of life. Affected individuals show delayed motor development with abnormal spastic gait and hyperreflexia of the lower limbs. Some patients may have mildly impaired intellectual development or learning difficulties (Deng et al., 2023). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of autosomal recessive SPG, see SPG5A (270800).

Hereditary spastic paraplegia-72A (SPG72A) is a pure form of spastic paraplegia with onset of difficulty walking and stiff legs associated with hyperreflexia and extensor plantar responses in early childhood. The disorder is slowly progressive, and some patients develop the need for assistance in walking. Some patients may have pes cavus or sphincter disturbances. Cognition, speech, and ocular function are normal (summary by Esteves et al., 2014). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of autosomal dominant spastic paraplegia, see SPG3A (182600).

Autosomal dominant spastic paraplegia-91 with or without cerebellar ataxia (SPG91) is a highly variable neurologic disorder characterized by early-onset gait abnormalities due to spastic paraplegia of the lower limbs, sometimes with cerebellar ataxia. The age at onset is highly variable (congenital to young adult), although most patients have symptom onset in the first decade. Some patients present with a spastic paraplegia-predominant phenotype with significant pyramidal signs, whereas others present with an ataxic-predominant phenotype. In addition, although most patients have a more 'pure' phenotype restricted to gait abnormalities without additional features, others have a more 'complicated' phenotype with additional features such as sensory abnormalities, peripheral neuropathy, optic neuropathy, developmental delay, variably impaired intellectual development, and seizures. Many have normal brain imaging, but cerebellar atrophy may be observed in those with prominent cerebellar ataxia (Van de Vondel et al., 2022). For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of autosomal dominant spastic paraplegia, see SPG3A (182600).

Alfadhel syndrome (AFDL) is an autosomal recessive neurodevelopmental disorder with features of global developmental delay, hypotonia, and facial dysmorphism (Asiri et al., 2020, Bertoli-Avella et al., 2021).

Autosomal recessive intellectual developmental disorder-81 (MRT81) is characterized by a variable neurobehavioral and neuromuscular phenotype (summary by Nair et al., 2021).